Jatropha is considered as a carbon reduction plant as it recycles 100% of the carbon dioxide emissions produced by burning the biodiesel made from it. Jatropha oil is renewable and biodegradable. Burning Jatropha oil is cleaner than burning fossil fuels as it produces a fraction of carbon dioxide — the main greenhouse gas responsible for climate change. Jatropha forests can act as carbon sinks, converting large volumes of carbon dioxide to oxygen through photosynthesis. Jatropha trees also remove carbon from the atmosphere; they store it in the woody tissues and assist in the build-up of soil carbon. According to studies, each additional hectare of Jatropha plants can absorb 40 tonnes of carbon dioxide. Also, for every 1% increase of forest coverage in China, 0.6-0.7 billion tonnes of carbon can be absorbed from the atmosphere.

9.4

Global Warming Around Us

What seems extreme now will be tomorrow’s norm if we continue to ignore that extreme weather patterns are harbingers of climate change. These patterns have real human consequences. Here are a few examples why we have to reduce carbon dioxide and let us also look back at 2010.

If Moscow were in the United States, it would be located somewhere just south of Anchorage, Alaska. Yet at the end of July 2010, Muscovites endured at least 5 days that had been hotter than the previous record of 37°C (99°F), set back in the 1920s. Prior to that summer, Moscow had never seen a day with triple-digit temperatures. Now, it has seen several.

The extreme heat — the worst weather to occur in Russia in 1000 years — and the resulting acute air pollution caused the death rate in Moscow to double. Almost 15 000 people died during the summer heat wave of 2010. Wildfires were burning rampantly, releasing more carbon dioxide into the air.

More devastating was the effect the heat had on Russia’s grain harvest. The loss was felt globally and grain prices moved up further. In 2010, Russia’s grain harvest was nearly halved from 22 to 12 million tonnes and Prime Minister Putin imposed an export ban. Millions of hectares were badly affected by the drought and the wheat crop perished to a great extent.

Climate change disruption is having a serious effect on our food supply. July 2012 was the hottest month on record in the history of the United States with an average temperature of 77.6 degrees (25° Celcius) — 3.3 degrees above the average 20th-century norm. In the summer of 2012 the USA suffers from the worst drought in half a century and corn prices are at a record high of $8,— a bushel.

As grain prices rise around the world and extreme weather patterns become the norm, starvation and malnutrition, already overwhelming problems, will become more persistent and further reaching. The scope of climate change goes far beyond

simple environmentalism — it is a fundamental question of how we power our grid, our economy, and ourselves.

We can keep our heads stuck in the sand and pretend what is happening will go away. Or we can disabuse ourselves of any responsibility, just to say "I told you so.”

Or we can, for once, look at what is happening now, and do what is necessary to mitigate and adapt to the forces of our changing planet.

9.5

Bagasse is the fibrous biomass residue that is left after sugarcane is crushed. It is comparable to seedcake from Jatropha or olives. One tonne of cane produces about 250 kg of bagasse, which accumulates quickly. Large dunes of bagasse are a typical feature of Brazilian cane processing mills.

A system of conveyor belts transfers the bagasse from its storage area to boilers, which produce vapor. The vapor powers turbines that generate clean and renew­able electricity (“bioelectricity”).

All Brazilian mills are self-sufficient in energy, producing more than enough electricity to cover their own needs. A growing number of mills are generating a surplus, which is sold to distribution companies and helps to light up numerous cities throughout Brazil.

In the near future, bagasse is also seen as an ideal raw material to produce second — generation (“cellulosic”) biofuels.

In early 2010, about 2000 average MW, or 3% of Brazil’s electricity require­ments, were being supplied by sugarcane-based bioelectricity. That total could reach 13 000 average MW by 2021 if all potential sources are fully developed. That would be enough to cover the needs of entire countries like Sweden or Argentina (www. sugarcane. org).

13.9 Fuel Consumption

The Brazilian sugar energy industry employs more than 1 million people. The rapid advance of mechanized harvesting also heightens the demand for qualified workers and less people employed in manual harvesting. Full mechanization is expected by 2017.

13.8

The effect of the 2010 oil spill in the Gulf of Mexico has consequences for both the demand and supply side of the oil market, but to varying degrees. Policy on

demand-side measures, carbon legislation, supply substitution, and energy reg­ulation are all likely to be affected. Overall, however, we think that the supply-side consequences are likely to be more severe.

Despite the oil spill, the large oil companies remain, by far and large, focused on oil. Even before the spill, most of them were devoting a lot of their research and development to alternative energies; for example, Exxon put in $500 000 into an electric car-sharing program in Baltimore, participated in the development of unconventional natural gas plays in Canada, and announced a $600 million partnership to develop next-generation biofuels from algae in 2009.

BP, in fact, pioneered much of the investments in the renewable sector, announcing in 2005 that it had plans to double its investment in alternative and renewable energies to create a new low-carbon power business with the growth potential to deliver revenues of around $6 billion a year within the next decade.

However, alternatives have remained a minor contributor of revenues compared to oil and this is unlikely to change soon. There might well be a step-up in the amount of work done in the renewable sector, but as long as oil remains the key transport fuel in the world, these large oil corporations are unlikely to move away from the production of crude.

The big push in renewable energy will not come from the oil majors. Feed­stock development will come from companies specialized in all aspects of agri­culture. In addition, high-tech companies with research in biotechnologies will support the development of new energy sources like waste, grass, woodchips, and algae.

Table 1.1 shows how much it costs to fill up a tank: from a luxury sports car to a cruise liner.

Jatropha is well adapted to marginal areas with poor soils and low rainfall, where it grows without competing with annual food crops, thus filling an ecological niche. It is widely distributed in the tropics. The species has numerous uses and it is in their combination that the potential of this crop lies. The most important aspects are carbon dioxide absorption, erosion control, oil, and organic fertilizer production. The use of the oil as a substitute for diesel fuel and for soap production in rural areas improves the living conditions of the people and offers additional income.

In Mali, for instance, the Jatropha seed harvest fits perfectly into the agricultural calendar: the main seed harvest is in August/September; millet is harvested in October. All parts of the plant are used in traditional medicine and active com­ponents are being investigated in scientific trials. Biokerosene made from Jatropha oil from Mali, produced by the Dutch company MaliBiocarburant, has been used in test flights. This is for me a real model company for how a Jatropha plantation should be managed. Have a look at their video on http://www. malibiocarburant. com/malibioen.

3.1.28

The palm oil story started in 1848, when it was discovered that the oil palm, a native of West Africa, grew well in the Far East. Its giant bunches of red fruits are rich in oil that proved useful in soap and later as a lubricant for steam engines. Demand grew and plantations sprouted in Malaysia in the 1930s. As the industry

matured, cultivation spread to Indonesia. These two countries today produce 90% of the world’s palm oil. Malaysia produces about 19 million tonnes of palm oil and Indonesia about 25 million tonnes. Upcoming palm oil producers are Ghana, with an estimated 100 000 hectares planted, and Nigeria, with an estimated 400 000 hectares planted.

These days palm oil is used in a vast array of food and consumer products like peanut butter, margarine, ice cream, lipstick, and shaving foam. Palm oil makes shampoos and soaps more creamy. It is a common cooking oil across Asia. It is also becoming more popular as a biofuel. Laws that encourage the use of bio­fuels are adding to demand.

Palm oil is the world’s largest vegetable oil crop. Palm oil is cheap compared to other vegetable oils, but green activists are doing their best to turn palm oil into a commercial liability.

4.3.3

Bush fires are one of the main threats to any agriculture undertaking. SORESIN mitigates this risk by constructing fire belts on our own fields and those of

community farmlands as well. Workers are then trained in fire fighting and provided with fire-fighting equipment.

SORESIN also organizes controlled burning to prevent unplanned and destruc­tive burning, and to safeguard the plantation and preserved areas, and conducts community awareness program on fires and the dangers of bush burning to the environment and natural resources.

6.7.8

Healthcare

Lack of preventative care and poor health are major contributors to the poverty trap. The capacity to grow and learn, live and work productively, and take care of a family depends on good health.

The health of SORESIN workers and community members is of prime impor­tance to the company. Outside of providing workers with protective equipment and clothing, and training them in occupational safety and hygiene, SORESIN provides a small facility and pays the salary for a nurse or doctor that the entire community can access.

This healthcare worker not only provides care to the community, but also serves as the conduit for promoting awareness and information on health, safety, and environmental protection procedures. This includes HIV/AIDS services and awareness, which is a critical component to the healthcare policy. The HIV/AIDS policy is in line with the national strategic plan for HIV/AIDS prevention/aware — ness, and includes care and counseling for infected workers/community members, HIV testing, condom use promotion and distribution, and HIV/AIDS education.

6.7.9

12.1

Clean Energy? Go to China

According to Juliet Eilperin in an article in the Washington Post of 30 September 2010 ("China leading the world in clean energy investment”), China’s emphasis on developing clean energy sources has rattled some of its economic competitors and could transform the global energy marketplace. In 2009, China surpassed the United States and other members of the G-20 for the first time as the leader in clean energy investment as the country spent $34.6 billion on clean energy investments, compared with $18.6 billion in the United States. Chinese officials also announced they will spend $75 billion a year on clean energy. In China, the policy has become very aggressive. The Chinese believe new technologies have to be developed to solve the pollution problem. Put simply, China is trying to change the system of how it uses and produces energy. China has decided to cut its carbon emissions per unit of gross domestic product by at least 40% by 2020 from 2005 levels.

In contrast to the United States, where a major change in energy policy usually means a lengthy legislative or regulatory battle, central government officials in China can make sweeping changes to their nation’s energy landscape quickly. They are ramping up the number of nuclear power plants, installing high-speed rail systems, and developing low-carbon cities, all without ballot initiatives and legislative debates. The key decision makers in China have much more power than in the United States and their decisions trickle from Beijing down through the whole legislative system all the way down to the villages.

In 2009, China installed wind technology that produced 13.8 GW, compared with America’s 10 GW, and the gap is expected to widen. China is projected to have installed capacity to produce about 14 GW in 2010 — an amount that could provide power to millions of homes. However, in the United States, the amount of new wind energy capacity installed in 2010 dropped between 25 and 45% from the previous year.

Second Generation Biofuels and Biomass: Essential Guide for Investors, Scientists and Decision Makers, First Edition. Roland A. Jansen. r 2013 Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA.

Published 2013 by Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA.

142 | 12 Biofuels in China

12.2

Relative to fossil fuels, sustainably produced biofuels result in a reduction in carbon dioxide emissions across their lifecycle. Carbon dioxide absorbed by plants during the growth of the biomass is roughly equivalent to the amount of carbon produced when the fuel is burned in a combustion engine, which is simply

Second Generation Biofuels and Biomass: Essential Guide for Investors, Scientists and Decision Makers, First Edition. Roland A. Jansen. r 2013 Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA.

Published 2013 by Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA.

returning the carbon dioxide to the atmosphere. This would allow the biofuel to be approximately carbon-neutral over its lifecycle. However, there are emissions pro­duced during the production of biofuels, from the equipment needed to grow the crop, transport the raw goods, refine the fuel, and so on. When these elements are accounted for, biofuels are still anticipated to provide an estimated 80% reduction in overall carbon dioxide lifecycle emissions compared to fossil fuels. For example, analysis of Camelina feedstock use for aviation has shown even better results, with an 84% reduction in lifecycle emissions. Furthermore, biofuels contain fewer impurities (such as sulfur), which enables an even greater reduction in sulfur dioxide and soot emissions than present technology has achieved.

15.3

Trees and shrubs in arid and semiarid regions, especially around the equator, are of vital importance for the human population in developing countries. Due to global warming, erosion, and droughts there is an alarming reduction in the number of trees. This has resulted in increased desertification. As an example, the Sahara desert and the Sahel area towards the south are expanding and causing havoc at the cocoa plantations in Ghana, Cameroon, and the Ivory Coast. In China, Beijing lies in the middle of a desert and in April the capital is covered under sandstorms.

Soil erosion is caused by wind and water, and droughts and floods as well as reduced water supply cause decreasing soil fertility. I have seen how in Ethiopia the fertile top soil is blown away by frequent desert storms.

Traditionally, shrubs and trees in the wild serve many purposes ([1], p. 6):

1. Food and drinks for humans (e. g. in hot climates you can buy a coconut on the street and drink fresh coconut milk, in Brazil street vendors press sugar juice from sugarcane before your eyes, and on the island of Lanzarote the cactus plant is cultivated because the juice is the feedstock for Campari!).

2. Browsing fodder for livestock and wildlife.

3. Beekeeping and honey production.

4. Sources of energy (firewood and charcoal).

5. Building and fencing material (skyscrapers in Asia could not be build without bamboo).

6. Fiber for cloth, rope, and handicrafts (my best jacket is made of bamboo!).

7. Tools for agriculture and cottage industry.

8. Handicraft, art, and religious objects.

9. Dye and tanning.

10. Drugs, medicinal, and veterinary uses) I remember an Indian woman saying: "my garden is my pharmacy”).

11. Shade and shelter for plants, animals, and humans.

12. Protection against erosion, and maintenance of soil fertility and productivity.

13. Water storage.

Now, however, agriculture has become a high-tech industry. I estimate that well over $20 billion has already been invested in research to develop enzymes and promote the cultivation of crops that adapt well to arid and semiarid conditions. We can now identify interesting plant species as energy sources. Some plants grow only around the equator, but other sources like waste, algae, or woodchips are not bound to tropical climates.

Scientists think that around 200 plant species can be processed into a diesel fuel substitute and even biokerosene. In Brazil, in the state-owned institute EMBRAPA, more than 5000 scientists are working in plant research. In particular, a few plants like sugarcane, Camelina, Pongamia, Crambe, and Jatropha have captured the interest of these scientists. In this plant category, the following properties ofJatropha curcas (the tropical physic nut) have won over great interest: it adapts well to semiarid marginal sites, its oil can be processed for use as a diesel fuel and jet fuel substitute, and it can be used for erosion control. The challenge is to domesticate the plant, improve the yields per acre or hectare, improve resistance against diseases, reduce water intake, optimize the plant’s DNA, and develop large amounts of feedstock.

Although a consensus exists that Jatropha is of Mexican and Central American origin, it has been cultivated for centuries as a hedge between properties in many other Latin American, Asian, and African countries. It has been documented that Jatropha was an important export product from the Cape Verde Islands between 1900 and 1950. Jatropha is not a new discovery. The Japanese army had its tanks running on crude Jatropha oil in Indonesia in World War II. Today, the trains between Mumbai and New Delhi run on Jatropha oil, with the plants growing along the railroad track!

The genus name Jatropha derives from the Greek iatros (doctor) and trophe (food), which implies medicinal uses ([1], p. 9). It has been used to treat indigestion.

Numerous vernacular names exist for J. curcas ([1], p. 9), including physic nut, purging nut (English); pourghere, pignon d’Inde (French); purgeernoot (Dutch); Purgiernuss, Brechnuss (German); purgueira (Portuguese); fagiola d’India (Italian); yu-lu-tzu (Chinese); and mundubi-assu (Brazil).

3.1.3

Some statistics:

• Mother Earth has around 800 million cars and 7 billion people.

• Every year we add 50 million cars and 80 million people.

• New car sales in China in 2010: 18 million cars!

• Car diesel consumption share: United States, 5%; Europe, 50%; India, 80%. Thus, diesel consumption in the United States is still very small, but the potential is enormous.

Energy demand is not so much population-driven, but it is income growth — driven. Here are the demographics and income growth forecasts:

• India is now forecast to surpass China in total population by 2030, 5 years earlier than previously thought.

• India’s population is forecast to rise by almost 350 million over the next quarter century, twice as fast as the United States, Western Europe, and China combined.

• While China’s population is currently larger than India’s by over 200 million, by 2050 India’s population is expected to exceed China’s by 200 million.

• India’s urban population is projected to rise from 29% of total population in 2005 to 41% by 2030.

• More critical for economic growth, however, is the rate of growth in the labor force. This is best estimated by projecting growth in the “working-age” popula­tion (age 15-60). Here, India’s advantages are amplified. The growth in India’s working-age population is expected to exceed its already rapid population growth until 2015. While China’s working-age population declines from 2020 to 2050, India’s increases until at least 2045. Reversals of fortune! China’s current working-age population dwarfs India’s by 230 million; however, by 2050 India’s working age population will exceed China’s by the same amount.

3.3.6