Papers dealing with charophytes biomass are not numerous worldwide, and methods to measure that attribute are more or less standard.

Two boat-based and one in-water sampling method were used by Rodusky et al. (2005) to collect submersed aquatic macrophytes (SAV) as part of a long term monitoring program in Lake Okeechobee, Florida, U. S.A. The boat-based methods consisted of a ponar dredge used only to collect Chara, and an oyster tongs-like apparatus to collect all other SAV. The in­water method involved use of a 0.5 m2 PVC quadrat frame deployed by a diver. Comparison of the three methods above showed no consistent pattern to the significant differences found in sampling precision between the three sampling methods, regardless of the geographical location, sediment type, SAV species or density.

To estimate charophytes biomass, the quadrat method is the most used one. According to the method, first a quadrate shall be delimited in the field, e. g. a 25 cm2 (Westlake 1965, 1971; Krebs 1989). Within this quadrat, a 5 cm diameter (area 19.7 cm2) and 50 cm tall PVC tube is inserted. Tube wall must be perforated throughout the first basal 25 cm to allow water circulation and the gathering of the plants.

Once collected, material must be stored in glass vials (e. g. 50 ml volume) and taken to the laboratory. In the laboratory, charophytes must be gently washed and if necessary scrapped with a very soft brush to remove other algal material and sediments adhered to the plants. After washed and/or scrapped, the excess water must be dried with some paper towel and finally placed in a porcelain melter.

For the analytic procedure, the charophyte material must be calcinated at 550°C during 1 hour, then cooled in a desiccator and weighted using an analytical scale to have P0. Immediately after, plants must be taken to an aerated oven at 65-70°C until no further weight change is observed for quantification of its dry weight (P1), and after 1 hour calcination at 550°C for determination of its ash dry weight (P2) (Hunter 1976). Determination of the ash free dry mass (AFDM) (Рз) is done using the mathematics Рз = (P1 — P0) — (P2 — P0). If total phosphorus (TP) is required, Strickland & Parsons (1965) method is to be used, i. e. the calcinated material is washed with 25 ml of HCl 1N, crushed and heated in a water-bath for 1 hour. After cooling, samples are diluted with 50-250 ml deionized water depending on the amount of calcinated material.

Palmer & Reid (2010) proposed a method they called ‘invention’ for the production of macroalgae to provide a sustained, economical source of biomass that may be used in various end-uses processes, including energy production. Their method provides specific combinations of macroalgae types, saltwater growth media compositions, and open pond water containers that resulted in biomass production beyond what may occur naturally without the required manipulation. Specifically, macroalgae that produce an exosqueleton in the presence of brackish water (e. g. stoneworths) have been found to provide excellent biomass production of at least 10 metric tons and up to 200 metric tons per acre per year under their method conditions.

Total phosphorus concentration is determined using a spectrophotometer. Another possibility for TP determination is by the molybdenum blue colorimetric method (Murphy & Riley 1962) after digestion with K2S2O8 in an autoclave at 120°C for 30 minutes (APHA 1995). Total nitrogen (TN) can be determined using spectrophotometry, based on the Koeofell colorimetric method. Calcium and magnesium can also be determined using a spectrophotometer, however, based on the Calmagite colorimetric method.

To achieve the biological potential of cells, the optimal environmental conditions must be maintained in the bioreactor for cell growth / product formation, at least with regard to the key parameters. Generally speaking, biological systems are influenced by different process variables, which have a direct influence on cell metabolism. Sensors for these variables are (typically) inserted into specially designed ports on the bioreactor. As bioreactors increase in size (i. e. in the industry field), the mixing problems become usual and probe location becomes problematic. To accurately outline large fermenters, probes may be collected from several locations.

A. Direct physical determinations

The existence of defined and optimal environmental conditions for biomass and product formation means that different physical and chemical parameters require to be kept constant or conforming to an optimal evolution trend during the process, i. e. any deviation from a specified optimum might be corrected by a control system.

The standard direct physical determinations are3: (1) temperature; (2) pressure (over pressure); (3) agitator shaft power and rate of stirring; (4) foam; (5) gas and liquid flow; (6) weight.

Temperature determination is important for bioprocess evolution as well as other process operations (i. e. sterilization, concentration, and purification). The temperature measurement is made in the range +20oC to +130oC through mercury-in-glass thermometers, bimetallic thermometers, pressure bulb thermometers, thermocouples, metal-resistance thermometers or thermistors; all of them must be steam-sterilizable at 120oC. The most popular are the Pt100 resistance thermometers.

Pressure measurements may be needed for several reasons; the most important of them is the safety. Industrial and laboratory equipment is designed to withstand a specified working pressure plus a factor of safety. Also, the measurement of pressure is important in media sterilization. Moreover, the pressure will influence the solubility of gases and contribute to the maintenance of sterility, when a positive pressure is present. The standard measuring sensor is the membrane pressure gauge based on strain or capacitance measurements.

The formation of foam can create serious problems in no controlled situations: loss of broth, clogging of gas analyzers, infections, etc. It is a common practice to add an antifoam agent when the culture starts foaming above a certain predetermined level. A standard foam sensing consists in an electrical conductivity / capacitance / heat conductivity probe.

A number of mechanical antifoam devices have been made, including discs, propellers, brushes attached to the agitator shaft above the surface of the broth. Unfortunately, most of the mechanical devices have to be used in conjunction with an antifoam agent, without negative influence on the bioprocess behavior.

The textile industry, in particular the wet industry, has been considered as one of the major water environment polluters. This is mainly due to the enormous amount of water and the complexity of the chemicals used in the manufacturing processes that end up in the wastewater. The poorly treated wastewater is still highly colored comprising of significant amounts of nonbiodegradable chemicals that are hazardous to the environment. Under anaerobic condition, some of the organics i. e. the azo dyes are transformed into more toxic chemicals (i. e. amines) that worsen the condition. The color will make a river inhabitable to a majority of aquatic plants and animals.

While there are many technologies available in treating the wastewater, a majority of them are relatively expensive to be applied by the small and mid-size industries. Furthermore, many of the physico-chemical technologies only transform the pollutants from one form or one phase to another and therefore do not provide any ultimate solution to the problem.

A conventional aerobic bioprocess fails to treat the wastewater due to the non­biodegradable nature of the wastewater. However, recent research and advancement in biological processes show that there is a huge potential of these new findings in providing low cost yet efficient technology to solve the textile wastewater problem.

1.2.1. Catalyst Evaluation in a Two-stage Fixed-bed Reactor

Figure 9 illustrates the gas yield and the biomass carbon balance of woody red pine pyrolysis in a two fixed-bed quartz reactor. In the case Ni/BCC catalyst, total gas yield increased drastically at a catalyst bed temperature of 923 K, at which the yield of CO and H2 achieved was 21.2 and 29.5 [mmol/g-sample daf], respectively, approximately three and six times in comparison to sand (Figure 9(a)). It was considered that tarry material was efficiently decomposed by the Ni/BCC catalyst. If we consider the effect of catalytic pyrolysis temperature on gas yield, Figure 9 (a) also shows that the gas yield increased by increasing temperature from 823 to 923 K, thus suggesting tar decomposition can be controlled by chemical kinetics.

Although there was no direct measurement of tar, we have the biomass carbon balance, which is illustrated in Figure 9(b). Among total carbon in biomass, percentages of carbon in product gas (C_ gas) and carbon in char (C_char) could be obtained by analyzing product gas and product char, respectively. Carbon in tar (C_tar) was estimated fairly by a different method: C_tar = 100 — (C_ gas + C_char). In the case of Ni/BCC, we could assume that the total carbon of product gas was released from biomass pyrolysis because the pyrolysis time

of 90 min was enough to release most releasable carbon in Ni/BCC at 923 K. The amount of C_chars was almost constant in all cases, because the char is accumulated in the first bed without contacting the catalyst particles at the same temperature of 1173 K. In the case of catalytic tar decomposition, the amount of C_gas increased drastically compared to no catalyst at 923 K. That is to say, the tar was decomposed over Ni/BCC catalyst by Equation, Tar ——CO + H2 + CO2 + CH4 + C2H4 + other hydrocarbon.

When using Ni/BCC catalyst, C_tar approaches zero at 923 K. Moreover, we did not observe tar adhered on the reactor. Thus, it suggests almost all of the tar was decomposed at 923 K under the pyrolysis experimental conditions.

The core aim for biorefineries is to produce both high-volume liquid fuels and high-value chemicals. As petroleum refinery uses petroleum as the major input and processes it into many different products, the term ‘biorefinery’ has been coined to describe the processing complexes that will use biomass as feedstocks to produce a wide spectrum of chemicals, fuels and bio-based materials, that can be used as industrial intermediates or sold directly to consumers [1, 8, 9]. Biorefineries have been considered as the key for access to an integrated production of chemicals, materials, goods, fuels and energy of the future [10]. As oil prices continue to rise and biorefining technology matures, biorefineries are playing an increasingly major role in the global economic system, with the potential to ultimately replace petroleum refineries as the world’s principal method of fuel generation.

1.1.2. Lignocelluloses feedstock (LCF) biorefinery

The largest organic carbon reservoir in our world is the biomass — plants and algae. Each year, plants fix approximately 90 billion tons of CO2, most of this as wood [11]. Lignocelluloses are the natural combination of cellulose, hemicelluloses and lignin. It’s the raw material for potential conversion to energy fuels and chemical feedstock for manufacturing. LCF biorefinery has been drfined as one of the so-called phase-III biorefinery concepts which are characterized by the ability to use a variety of resources by different routes to generate multiple products [12].

A LCF biorefinery uses lignocellulosic biomass, including forestry residue, agricultural residue, yard waste, wood products, animal wastes, etc. Initially, plant material is cleaned and broken down into the three main fractions (hemicellulose, cellulose, and lignin) by chemical digestion or enzymatic hydrolysis. Hemicellulose and cellulose can be produced by alkaline and acid. Lignin can also be further broken down with enzymes. The hemicellulose and cellulose are sugar polymers, which can be converted to their component sugars through hydrolysis. A hemicellulose is a polymer that contains five-carbon sugars (usually D-xylose and L-arabinose), six-carbon sugars (D-galactose, D-glucose, and D — mannose), and uronic acid. Cellulose is a polymer of only glucose. The hydrolysis process of hemicelluloses and cellulose result in the aforementioned sugars [13].

The LCF Biorefinery is a promising alternative due to the abundance and variety of available raw materials and the good position of the conversion products on the market [14]. Its profitability is also dependent on the technology employed to alter the structure of lignocellulosic biomass in order to produce high value co-products from its three main fractions i. e. cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin [15].

Currently the main feedstock for biorefineries is still based on starch. The practiced technologies in fuel ethanol industry are primarily based on the fermentation of sugars derived from starch and sugar crops, which are quite mature with little possibility of process improvements. However, using starch and sugar crops to produce ethanol also has been questioned since it draws its feedstock from a food stream. Lignocellulosic biomass is a more promising renewable resource as it is available in large quantities and does not compete with food or feed. Lignocellulosic biomass is a renewable resource that stores energy from sunlight in its chemical bonds, with great potentials for the production of affordable fuel ethanol [16, 17]. Its main obstacle for a major breakthrough is the high production costs for bioenergy products.

On the other hand, lignocellulosic biomass-derived products can significantly reduce green house gas emissions, compared to fossil-based products. Also, many common petrochemicals could be obtained with lower green house gas emissions from bio-based feedstocks. The maturity and economics of the conversion processes and logistics is a major challenge for lignocellulosic biomass [18].

The efficiencies of different solvents (water, acid and alcohol) in the extraction of caffeine and phenols from leaves of white, black, green and red tea in different solvents: ethanol, isopropanol, methanol and water. Extraction was performed comparative by ultrasonic and by MAE. Determination of the total amount of phenolic compounds was studied comparative using different extraction times 5, 15 and respectively 30 minutes. The microwave irradiation shortens time necessary to extract phenols and caffeine from tea samples (between 30 and 50 seconds). The results of the comparison investigation are presented in the figure 1.

2. Conclusion

Chromatographic determination of phenolic compounds isolated from the tea samples by ultrasonic and MAE extraction is comparable. The difference between the two methods of extraction consists in extraction time and amount of solvents used. Also, the yield for MAE was about 20% is 20% higher than that of the ultrasonic extraction.

Figure 1. Comparison between the two extraction methods

Author details

Adina-Elena Segneanu, Paulina Vlazan,

Paula Sfarloaga and Iaon Grozesku

National Institute of Research and Development for Electrochemistry and Condensed Matter — INCEMC Timisoara, Romania

Florentina Sziple

Eftimie Murgu University, Resita, Romania

Vasile Daniel Gherman

Politehnica" University of Timisoara, Romania

Typical control strategy in methanogenic anaerobic reactors is to maintain a relatively low concentration of volatile fatty acids (VFA) and a pH range of 6.6 < pH < 7.4. Normally in such reactors the carbonate system forms the main weak-acid system responsible for maintaining the pH around neutrality, while the VFA systems (acetic, propionic, and butyric acids) are the major cause for pH decline. Under stable operating conditions, the H2 and acetic acid formed by acidogenic and acetogenic bacterial activity are utilized immediately by the methanogens and converted to methane. Consequently, the VFA concentration is typically very low, carbonate alkalinity is not consumed and the pH is stable. Conversely, under overload conditions or in the presence of toxins or inhibitory substances, the activity of the methanogenic and acetogenic populations is reduced causing an accumulation of VFA which in turn increases the total acidity in the water, reducing pH. The extent of the pH drop depends on the H2CO3 alkalinity concentration. In medium and well-buffered waters (typically the case in anaerobic digestion), high concentrations of VFA would have to form in order to cause a detectable pH drop, by which time reactor failure would have occurred. Therefore, pH measurement cannot form the sole control means, and direct measurement of either (or both) VFA or H2CO3 alkalinity concentration is necessary.

The most used technique for the determination of alkalinity for the control of the system anaerobic is described below:

25 mL of sample are taken and placed on a plate with stirring to a solution titrated with 0.02 N sulfuric acid, it initial pH is measured and the acid is added until the pH changes to 5.75 volume of spent acid, followed by titrating until the pH changes to 4.3 and the volume of spent acid is taken and is determined the alpha value.

Alpha = acid vol. (5.75)/ acid vol. (4.3) if this value is greater than 0.55 the bioreactor is acidified and must add a buffer, on the contrary, if it is less, acid must be added [35].

During early commercialization of the willow coppice system as an agricultural crop in Sweden, funding agencies made the decision to put the far majority of the development costs for harvest machines on the account of commercial machine developers. This resulted in a situation in the early 1990s where many willow stands needed to be harvested before self-thinning would lead to an irreversible mortality among willow stools and long-term production losses, while harvest machines still had to be developed and assembled. This is one of the reasons for the early commercial yields to be disappointingly low (see section 4.7).

Fortunately, a variety of willow harvest machines are on the market now, and recent technical improvements greatly enhance harvesting speed while lowering the costs for willow harvesting. In Sweden, willow is usually harvested during the winter, when the soil is able to carry heavy machinery and when willow chips can be transported to district heating plants for direct use, without long-term storage (Figure 9).

However, mild and wet winters may prohibit the use of heavy harvesters, which means that either lighter equipment has to be developed or that the harvest season has to be extended. Expanding the harvesting season for willow biomass crops would expand the time period over which it can be a part of the fuel supply and increase the number of acres that a single harvesting machine could cover in a single year. This would likely increase the demand for willow and certainly reduce harvesting costs, because capital expenditures for a harvester would be spread across more tons of biomass. Nordh [81] investigated the possibility to extend the harvest season, focusing on the re-growth capacity of willow coppice after harvesting, and found that willow (clone Tora) could be harvested from autumn, prior to the onset of dormancy, until late spring, when bud burst already had commenced. Early and late harvest did not increase plant mortality, but it could result in a slight production decrease in the consecutive season.

Apart from direct chipping (Figure 9), willow biomass can be baled (Figure 10) and fragmented in a later stage, possibly after storage, which will decrease moisture content of the willow biomass.

To harvest willow rods for conventional planting by means of a machine, equipment has been developed which can harvest entire one-year old shoots. Mature stands can also be harvested by means of a whole-shoot harvester (Figure 11) which may carry its load to the headland for further transportation. Special equipment has been developed to make bundles from a pile of whole shoots, thereby improving further transportation logistics. As willow is a low-density fuel, willow should preferably be cultivated in the proximity of the consumer, to decrease transportation distances and costs.

1.1. Analysis of energy indices in varieties rice production under traditional and semi-mechanized system condition

In "Figure 4" (traditional system) and "Figure 5" (semi-mechanized system), seven groups of reserves of production of studied figures according to percentage of total energy of reserve is observed. Results showed that highest energy consumption in all varieties was related to chemical fertilizer. The amount of further use of fertilizer and also raising of equivalent amounts of energy in this reserve showed this subject. The energy of water reserve, fuel, poison, machines, seed and human labor are in next grades.

Rice plants require fertilizer during vegetative stage to promote growth and tillering, which in turn, determines potential number of panicles. Fertilizer contributes to spikelet production during early panicle formation stage, and contributes to sink size during the late panicle formation stage. Fertilizer also plays a role in grain filling, improving the photosynthetic capacity, and promoting carbohydrate accumulation in culms and leaf sheaths [1].

Results of "Tables 5 and 6" showed that breed varieties (Khazar, Hybrid and Gohar) because of suitable genetic specifications have higher operation in compared with local varieties (Hashemi and Alikazemi), highest paddy yield (9500 kg/ha), straw yield (12969 kg/ha), husk yield (2375 kg/ha) and biomass yield (24844 kg/ha) of semi-mechanized system and paddy yield (8360 Kg/ha), straw yield (11413 kg/ha), husk yield (2090 kg/ha) and biomass yield (21863 kg/ha) of traditional system observed in Gohar rice.

Breed varieties because of accepting higher fertilizer have further input energy than local varieties under two farming systems condition "Tables 5 and 6". Traditional system because of consumption higher fertilizer and seed has further input energy than semi-mechanized system "Tables 3 and 4".

Semi-mechanized system because of producing higher paddy yield, straw yield, husk yield and biomass yield than traditional system of has higher output energy "Tables 5 and 6". Breed varieties (Khazar, Hybrid and Gohar) because of suitable genetic specifications have

higher output energy in compared with local varieties (Hashemi and Alikazemi). Highest output energy with averages 139650, 162113, 32775 and 339535 MJ/ha of semi-mechanized system and with averages 122892, 142663, 28842 and 298794 MJ/ha of traditional system observed in Gohar rice "Tables 5 and 6".

Energy ratio in two farming systems and five varieties showed that positive output of energy production and being further of energy output of semi-mechanized system than traditional system and breed varieties than local varieties (tables 5 and 6).

Results of energy intensity under two farming systems condition "Tables 5 and 6" showed that local varieties require of further input from production of paddy yield, straw yield, husk yield and biomass yield than breed varieties.

Results of energy productivity under two farming systems condition "Tables 5 and 6" were showed that in breed varieties lieu of imported energy consumption have higher energy productions than local varieties.

Net energy gain in two farming systems and five varieties showed that highest net energy gain of semi-mechanized system than traditional system and breed varieties than local varieties. Highest net energy gain with averages 97865, 120328, -9010 and 297750 MJ/ha of semi-mechanized system and with averages 82369, 102140, -11681 and 258271 MJ/ha of traditional system observed in Gohar rice "Tables 5 and 6"

Direct, indirect energy, renewable, non-renewable, % direct, % indirect energy, % renewable and % non-renewable in two farming systems and five varieties were showed "Tables 7". In two farming systems and five varieties were showed that direct energy and % direct energy as compared with indirect energy and % indirect energy; renewable energy and % renewable energy as compared with nonrenewable energy and % nonrenewable energy have lower amount "Tables 7". The amount of higher consumption of machinery and diesel fuel in semi-mechanized system lead to increasing indirect energy in this system in compared with traditional system. The amount of higher consumption of chemical fertilizer in breed varieties lead to increasing indirect energy in these varieties in compared with local varieties. Results showed that, lower amount of consumption of seed and human labor in semi-mechanized system in compared with traditional system leads to being lower of renewable energy in semi-mechanized system than traditional system "Tables 7". Lower amount of consumption of seed in breed varieties in compared with local varieties leads to being lower of renewable energy in breed varieties than local varieties. The amount of higher consumption of chemical fertilizer in breed varieties in compared with local varieties leads to increasing nonrenewable energy in these breed varieties than local varieties. The share of direct and indirect energy from total reserve of energy and share of renewable and nonrenewable energies from total reserve of energy "Tables 7" in studied farming systems and varieties were that the percentage of direct energy is lowest than percentage of indirect energy and percentage of renewable energy in producing rice is lowest than nonrenewable energies that this required to consider saving in energy consumption.

Moradi and Azarpour [23] with study of energy indices for native and breed rice varieties production in Iran were recorded the highest grain yield, input energy, output energy, energy ratio, energy productivity and Net energy gain obtained from breed varieties as compared with local varieties. Eskandari Cherati et al. [11] with study energy survey of mechanized and traditional rice production system in Mazandaran province of Iran showed that the total energy used for semi-mechanized and traditional rice production system was 67217.95 and 67356.28 MJ/ha, respectively. Based on the results, irrigation and fertilizer in both systems with 50232 and 7610.32 MJ/ha was the most input energy. Total energy output of the traditional method was 127.5 GJ/ha and that of the semi-mechanized was 132.26 GJ/ha. Parallel to the mechanization level of operations that increased, consumption of fuel and machinery energy increased similarly, but the human labor and seed energy consumption dropped. The renewable energy in the traditional and semi-mechanized systems was 3168.3 (4.70% total energy) and 2312.1 MJ/ha (3.44%), respectively. Energy ratio and energy productivity in traditional and semi-mechanized systems was 3 and 3.08, and 0.111 and 0.116 kg/MJ 116.0, respectively. Nonetheless, net energy gain and specific energy showed that energy efficiency of semi-mechanized systems was more than the traditional system. Khan et al. [16] with energy requirement and economic analysis of rice production in western part of Pakistan Energy requirement and economic analysis of rice production in western part of Pakistan revealed that energy consumption and rice yield were 5,756 kWh and 3.23 tons per hectare on Bullock Operated Farms (BOF) and 11,162 kWh and 4.12 tons per hectare on Tractor Operated Farms (TOF). Consumption of animate energy on BOF was more than TOF due to heavy use of animate energy in land preparation operation. Result also showed that energy efficiency i. e. output-input ratio on BOF (6.32) was higher than TOF (4.16). Cost of production remained lower on BOF than TOF, however, the yield and consequently crop values and net return were higher on TOF than BOF.

Khan et al. [17] with study energy requirements and economic analysis of wheat, rice and barley production in Australia revealed that chemical fertilizer consumed 47, 43 and 29 % of the total energy inputs on wheat, rice and barley growing farms, respectively. Wheat consumed 3028, rice 6699 and barley consumed 2175 kWhha-1. Similarly, wheat utilized 2852, rice 17754 and barley 856 m3ha-1. Average energy output of wheat was 27874, rice 44885, and barley obtained 17865 kWhha-1. Wheat was most energy efficient crop compared to rice and barley, whereas barley achieved the highest water productivity.

Enrique Javier Carvajal Barriga, Cristina Guaman-Burneo, Patricia Portero Barahona, Edgar Salas, Carolina Tufino, Bernardo Bastidas

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter http://dx. doi. org/10.5772/51951

1. Introduction

Ecuador is located between 1°N and 5°S on the west coast of South America. Although relatively small in size, mainland Ecuador can be subdivided nevertheless into three different and quite distinctive climatic regions: the Pacific coastal plain, the Andean highlands and the Amazon basin. In addition, Ecuador possesses a fourth region, namely the Galapagos Islands.

Climatically, the Pacific coastal plain is hot all year, with a rainy season between December and May. In the Andean highlands, the climate is markedly cooler, varying according to altitude. In contrast, the Amazon basin is hot, humid and wet all year round, while the Galapagos Islands are dry, with an annual average temperature of 25° C (77° F).

These characteristics provide Ecuador with a huge potential to develop second generation ethanol from industrial biomass, to replace a portion of the gasoline needed and, thus, the reduction of CO2 emissions. The climatic conditions as well as the photoperiods and rainfall along the year make this country an excellent candidate to develop second generation biofuels technology from biomass.

Tropical cultures such as bananas, oil palm, sugar cane, and others that are produced mainly in the coastal region of the country generates each year enough cellulose to produce almost all the ethanol the country needs. The current situation in terms of the use of these lignocellulosic materials is still in its very beginning and much work is to be developed to establish a market for the lignocellulosic residues.

Additionally, microbial biodiversity and its research is becoming one important issue in terms of the development of innovative technologies based on biotechnology, pointing out

© 2013 Barriga et al., licensee InTech. This is an open access chapter distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons. org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

the search for novel genes and metabolic abilities especially in wild yeasts studied in natural environments all around the country. Local researchers are devoted to the metabolic engineering of yeasts to improve the fermentation yields.

In this chapter we report some results from the or Sustainable Resources for Ethanol (RESETA) project, from the quantification and characterization of the most important cultures in Ecuador, its residues and characteristics, to the development of genetic engineered yeasts and the design and construction of a biorefinery at pilot scale.

The above mentioned project involves one of the most important researches the Ecuadorian Government has founded since 2008. The advances and results of this project can be taken as models for other tropical countries in the world.

Finally, we present the economic viability analysis of second generation ethanol projects in large scale in Ecuador, looking forward the industrial production of ethanol, biogas, biofertilizers and renewable chemicals in biorefineries in Ecuador.