Allometry equations are used to extrapolate the remotely sampled data to any larger area using the mathematical formulas. By using Allometry equations, the difficult variables associated with the measurement of wood and leaf biomass from easy-to-measure tree parameters, such as the stem diameter (at tree base or breast height), tree height or canopy and tree’s crown width, can be easily calculated (Chidumayo 1997; Netshiluvhi and Scholes 2001; Santos et al. 2002). The Allometric equations are commonly derived by making use of the regression analysis of the relationship between the weight in dry form obtained from the destructive sampling (as described above) and the measured dimensional parameters of the fallen trees (De Gier 2003).

The equations are expressed in power law form or logarithmic form as shown in Eqs. 12.10 or 12.11 (Japanese International Cooperation Agency JICA 2005):

у = b * лл (12.10)

or

ln y = ln b + a ln x (12.11)

Where y is the weight of tree in kilograms, b is the allometric coefficient, a is the allometric exponent and x is the measured tree parameter which is significantly related to tree biomass such as basal diameter in the units of centimetres (cm).

Homogeneous catalysts can be base catalysts, such as sodium hydroxide (NaOH) and potassium hydroxide (KOH) (Shimada et al. 2002), or acid catalysts, such as sulfuric, sulfonic, phosphoric, and hydrochloric acids (Georgogianni et al. 2009). Base catalysts possess higher catalytic efficiency, lower cost (Wen et al. 2010), and lower reaction temperature and pressure (Freedman et al. 1984) so they are preferred over acid catalysts. Heterogeneous catalysts also classified as acidic and basic. Such as sulfated metal oxide, heteropolyacids, acidic ion exchange resin, and sulfonated amorphous catalysts (Sakai et al. 2009) Ni-Ca-hydroxyapatite solid acid catalyst (Chakraborty and Das 2012) zinc oxide (ZnO), calcium oxide (CaO), stron­tium oxide (SrO) (Lam and Lee 2011), and Na/SiO2 (Akbar et al. 2009) and (Yusuf et al. 2012). Researchers used calcined washed Rohu fish scale (Labeo rohita) as a heterogeneous base catalyst with a maximum biodiesel yield of 97.73 % and up to six reuses (Chakraborty et al. 2011). Fly-ash-supported CaO catalyst from eggshell waste shows a performance of 96.5 % for biodiesel production (Chakraborty et al.

2010) . Some of the commonly used heterogeneous base catalysts are K/y-Al2O3 catalyst (Alonso et al. 2007), HTiO2 hydrotalcite catalyst (Barakos et al. 2008),

Ca and Zn mixed oxide (Ngamcharussrivichai et al. 2008), Al2O3 supported CaO and MgO catalysts (Umdu et al. 2009), alkaline earth metal oxides (Mootabadi et al. 2010), KF/Ca-Al, basic zeolites, alkali metal loaded alumina (Narasimharao et al. 2011). Basic heterogeneous catalysts have higher activity than acidic catalysts owing to shorter reaction times lower temperatures requirement in comparison to acidic catalyst.

The fruits of J. curcas are about 2.5 cm long and are ovoid in shape. Average fruit yields are about 3.5 tons ha-1, and, yields of 1-1.25 tons ha-1 are common when grown in wastelands under rain-fed conditions (Kumar et al. 2003). The fruit is made up of the shell and seeds. Two to three seeds are present in each fruit. It has nearly 400-425 fruits per kg and 1,500-1,600 seeds per kg weight (Singh et al.

2008) . In dry J. curcas fruit, shell accounts for 35-40 % and seed for 60-65 % of weight (Vyas and Singh 2007). All these components of the J. curcas fruit have been used as sources of bioenergy.

17.4.1 The Shell

The shell is removed mechanically during oil extraction from the fruit. One hectare of land under Jatropha plantation produces about one ton of shell material which can be used as energy source. The shell contains 34 % cellulose, 12 % lignin, and 10 % hemicelluloses. The shells have 16 % fixed carbon content, 15 % Ash, and 69 % volatile matter respectively (Singh et al. 2008). The J. curcas shell has caloric value of 16.9 MJ kg-1 (Vyas and Singh 2007) to 17.2 MJ kg-1 (Openshaw 2000) implying one hectare plantations can supply energy of 16.9-17.2 GJ vice shells alone. J. curcas shells owing to their chemical composition are also a good feed­stock for briquetting, bio-methanation and pyrolysis (Singh et al. 2008; Manurung et al. 2009; Sotolongo et al. 2009).

Biological pretreatments use microorganisms viz. fungi to solubilize the lignin. Biodelignification is the biological degradation of lignin by microorganism. Fungi have distinct degradation characteristics on lignocellulosic biomass. In general, brown and soft rots mainly attack cellulose while imparting minor modifications to lignin, and white-rot fungi more actively degrade the lignin component (Sun and Cheng 2002). Several white-rot fungi such as Phanerochaete chrysosporium, Ceriporia lacerata, Cyathus stercoreus, Ceriporiopsis subvermispora, Pycnoporus cinnabarinus, and Pleurotus ostreatus have been examined on different lignocellu — losic biomass showing high delignification efficiency (Kumar and Wyman 2009; Shi et al. 2008). Biological pretreatment by white-rot fungi has been combined with organosolv pretreatment in an ethanol production process by simultaneous sacchari­fication and fermentation (SSF) from beech wood chips (Itoh et al. 2003).

The biological pretreatment appears to be a promising technique and has very evident advantages, including no chemical requirement, low energy input, mild envi­ronmental conditions, and environmentally friendly working manner (Kurakake et al. 2007; Salvachua et al. 2011). However, its disadvantages are as apparent as its advantages since biological pretreatment is very slow and requires careful control of growth conditions and large amount of space to perform treatment. However, the main drawback to develop biological methods is the low hydrolysis rate obtained in most biological materials compared to other technologies (Sun and Cheng 2002).

Rolling technology slices bamboo, which is then softened by steam so that lignin middle lamella separates out. The bonding of the fiber is then weakened through rolling or hammering. Through mechanical friction, bamboo is eventually decom­posed (Yao and Zhang 2011). Quality and yield of fiber produced by this method is shown in Table 2.1.

2.3.1 Mechanical Comb Fiber Technology

With the help of mechanical equipments, bamboo is ground to make bamboo fiber. Although the strength and flexibility of the fiber is considerably damaged during the mechanical treatment process but the fiber produced is thick and short and is used in the production of bamboo fiberboard and some other low value products (Yao and Zhang 2011) . Quality and yield of fiber produced by this method is shown in Table 2.1.

2.3.2 Degumming Defibrase System Technology by Explosion

As bamboo plant has high lignin content so it is difficult to perform degumming on it. Therefore, liquid water is taken and bamboo is treated at high temperature and pressure. Although this method is chemical and pollution free, has high fiber rate and uniform fiber recovery, but the process is intricate and costly and the fibers obtained are also dark colored (Yao and Zhang 2011). Quality and yield of fiber produced by this method is shown in Table 2.1.

Deepak Verma, P. C. Gope, Inderdeep Singh, and Siddharth Jain

Contents

4.1 Introduction……………………………………………………………………………………………………… 64

4.2 Sugarcane: A World Scenario…………………………………………………………………………………. 66

4.2.1 Cultivation and Production of Sugarcane………………………………………………………… 67

4.3 Processing Techniques/Extraction Methods of Bagasse Fibers from Sugarcane

and Bagasse Compositions…………………………………………………………………………………… 69

4.3.1 Atmospheric Extraction Process to Obtain Bagasse Fibers…………………………………….. 69

4.3.2 Chemical Extraction……………………………………………………………………………….. 69

4.4 Bagasse Composition, Properties and Physical Characteristics of Bagasse Fibers…………………….. 70

4.4.1 Physical Properties of Bagasse Fibers…………………………………………………………….. 71

4.5 Applications of Bagasse Fibers……………………………………………………………………………….. 72

4.5.1 Oil Spill Sorption…………………………………………………………………………………… 72

4.5.2 Agricultural End-Use……………………………………………………………………………….. 72

4.5.3 Animal Bedding…………………………………………………………………………………….. 72

4.5.4 Aquaculture…………………………………………………………………………………………… 73

4.5.5 Sugarcane Bagasse Paper…………………………………………………………………………… 73

4.5.6 Production of Ethanol from Sugarcane Bagasse…………………………………………………. 73

4.6 Conclusion and Future Perspective………………………………………………………………………….. 74

References ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 75

D. Verma (*) • S. Jain

Department of Mechanical Engineering, College of Engineering Roorkee,

Roorkee, Uttarakhand 247667 , India e-mail: dverma. mech@gmail. com

P. C. Gope

Department of Mechanical Engineering, College of Technology,

Pantnagar, Uttarakhand 263445 , India

I. Singh

Mechanical and Industrial Engineering Department, Indian Institute of Technology, Roorkee, Uttarakhand, India

K. R. Hakeem et al. (eds.), Biomass and Bioenergy: Processing and Properties,

DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-07641-6_4, © Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2014

Abstract Botanically, sugarcane belongs to an economically important seed plant family that includes maize, wheat, rice, and sorghum known as Saccharum offici — narum . Bagasse, an agricultural residue not only becomes a problem from the environmental point of view, but also affects the profitability of the sugarcane indus­tries. This chapter discusses the properties and processing methods for the extraction of the bagasse fibers from sugarcane and its current status of research. The applica­tions of the bagasse fibers in different fields have also been discussed.

Keywords Sugarcane • Bagasse • Extraction methods • Image analysis

4.1 Introduction

Sugarcane is a tropical, perennial grass typically 3-4 m high and has approximately 5 cm in diameter and become mature stalk. The composition of mature stalk is com­posed of 11-16 % fiber, 12-16 % soluble sugars, 2-3 % non-sugars, and 63-73 % water. Sugarcane is the world’s largest crop. There is a variation in the properties of the sugarcane stalk which generally depends on variety. Under normal field condi­tions it has been observed that the height of sugarcane stalk varies from 1.5 to 3 m and has diameter range from 1.8 to 5 cm. The color of the surfaces of the stalk may be green, yellow, or red and covered by a thin layer of wax (van Dillewijn 1952). The stalk (cane) generally comprises shorter segments and also some joints. The length of these joints varied from 5 to 25 cm. It is also observed that the lower joints are longer and larger in diameter. Generally it has been seen that every joints com­prise of two parts, one is the node and the other is internode (Elsunni and Collier

1996) . Stalk structures like the root band, bud, and the shoulder lies at the node (Clements 1980). From the point of view of internode it has been observed that there are two particular areas. The primary one is the outer layer, which is also known as the rind and is so hard and dense. The secondary is the inside layer which has soft region where the fibro vascular bundles are firmly fixed in a surrounding mass, and known as the pith. It is found that there is a wide space lies between the fibro vascular bundles in the middle part of the stalk, but at the boundary the number of bundles increases and their sizes decrease. Generally the compositions of the bundles are fiber cells bounded by lignin and hemicellulose. On aging of the cane the deposition of the lignin like compound occurs around the fibro vascular tissues (van Dillewijn 1952). Advancement of cane aging results removal of lignin and softening and weakening of bundles. The nature of the soft rind is only because of the cellulosic effect (Elsunni and Collier 1996). The fibrous strands of the fibro vascular bundles extended for long distances in the stem. The separation of fibrous strands is found to be at the secondary part (internode). At the internode the bundle grows just in parallel to the stalk. The fibro bundles are dispersed through inside of the stalk and are more ample at the region of rind, as compared to the center of the stalk. This type of the positioning of bundles not only improves the strength but also improves the rigidity of the stalk. The stalk hardness is a characteristic regarding both in the sugarcane mill and also in the pasture. The varieties of hard cane result in so many mechanical problems (van Dillewijn 1952). The hard rinds cane are very difficult to operate by manual cutters and results excessive failure of mechanical harvesting units which also ultimately results the loss of spare parts and crushing time (Barnes 1964). Similarly the varieties of hard rind also have some advantages over softer cane varieties associated with resistance to attacks by animals such as rats, pigs, and mongooses.

It has been also observed that from the point of view of biomass energy sugar­cane is found to be one of the important agricultural sources. There are generally two main types of biomass produced by the sugarcane; these are cane trash and bagasse. Cane trash is the remainder after harvesting of the cane stalk while on the other hand milling of the cane results bagasse which is the fibrous residue with 45-50 % moisture content.

The use of bagasse (after combustion) is in the production of steam for power generation. Bagasse is also recognized and used for the production of bioethanol. The important application of bagasse is found in paper making. In paper making industries it is utilized as the raw material. The calorific value estimation of bagasse as a fuel also describes its value, which is influenced by its composition and also on the calorific value of the sugarcane crop mainly because of the content of sucrose present. Moisture content generally decides the calorific value of the sugarcane. A good milling process results low moisture content of sugarcane which is of about 45 % whereas poor milling results 52 % moisture content. Generally it has been observed that most of the mills produce bagasse of 48 % moisture content, and most boilers burn bagasse at around 50 % moisture. Bagasse generally composed of fiber (cellulose), which contains carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, sucrose (1-2 %), and ash originating from extraneous matter. Sugar factory produces 30 tons of wet bagasse after crushing 100 tons of sugarcane. Bagasse is generally found as a primary fuel source for sugar mills which when burned then generates sufficient electrical energy, used to fulfill all the basic needs of a sugar mill.

The most energy projects have been demonstrated and presented in many sugar­cane producing countries. The power generation from sugarcane is a good option as renewable energy that increases sustainable development, increases profitability and competitiveness in the industry.

In 2010, Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) estimates that sugarcane was cultivated in more than 90 countries in 23.8 million hectares, with a worldwide harvest of 1.69 billion tons. Brazil produces the sugarcane on a larger scale in the world. Another five main producers, in descending order of production, are India, China, Thailand, Mexico, Pakistan (Duttamajumder et al. 2011). To obtain bagasse fiber first the sugarcane is crushed in a series of mills, which consists of at least three heavy rollers. Crushing process of sugarcane results breaking of the cane stalk in small pieces, and milling will squeeze the juice out. The juice obtained from sugar­cane is collected for the production of sugar. The crushed and squeezed cane stalk named as bagasse (Elsunni and Collier 1996). Collier et al. (1992) suggested that bagasse will be a good source for the pulp and paper industry ahead and compared to other crops. The annual estimated amount of bagasse production is about 80,000,000 metric tons (MT), from which 25,000,000 MT will be utilized for pulping. The value added agricultural products development not only optimizes the extraction process and process parameters on fiber properties, but also optimizes the sampling and mea­suring technique (Romanoschi et al. 1997). Image analysis will allow to determine physical parameters for unconventional fiber such as bagasse in an easy and inexpen­sive way. The research in this field will have an impact on economic development by providing alternatives to agriculturists in crop choices and providing value to the sug­arcane crop. Conversion of agricultural by-products to the value added products not only provides benefit to the economy of country but also developed new markets for agricultural crops. In this chapter, various properties and extraction methods of bagasse fibers and their applications are discussed. The various applications of the bagasse fibers in nonwoven form have also been reported.

Roger Moya and Diego Camacho

Contents

7.1 Introduction…………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 112

7.2 Material and Methods………………………………………………………………………………………… 113

7.2.1 Proposal for Industrialization…………………………………………………………………….. 113

7.2.2 Testing Sites of the Model………………………………………………………………………. 113

7.2.3 Industrialization Tests…………………………………………………………………………….. 114

7.2.4 Morphological Parameters of the Leaf and Bleaching……………………………………… 114

7.2.5 Fiber and Waste Moisture Content Determination……………………………………………. 114

7.2.6 Fiber Color and Color Change………………………………………………………………….. 115

7.2.7 Costs and Production Tests……………………………………………………………………… 115

7.2.8 Information Processing…………………………………………………………………………… 115

7.2.9 Data Analysis………………………………………………………………………………………. 116

7.3 Results and Discussion………………………………………………………………………………………. 116

7.3.1 Production and Morphological Characterization

of A. comosus Leaves……………………………………………………………………………. 116

7.3.2 Proposed Leaf Scrapping Machine………………………………………………………………. 118

7.3.3 Fiber Characterization…………………………………………………………………………….. 119

7.3.4 Production Performance………………………………………………………………………….. 122

7.3.5 Production Costs………………………………………………………………………………….. 122

7.4 Conclusions……………………………………………………………………………………………………. 123

References……………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 123

R. Moya (*) • D. Camacho

Escuela de Ingeniena Forestal, Instituto Tecnologico de Costa Rica,

Apartado, 159-7050 Cartago, Costa Rica e-mail: rmoya@itcr. ac. cr

K. R. Hakeem et al. (eds.), Biomass and Bioenergy: Processing and Properties, 111

DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-07641-6_7, © Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2014

Abstract Ananas comosus crops, particularly the MD-2 variety, have demonstrated to adapt well to the environmental conditions of Costa Rica. However, one of the main issues that the management of this crop involves is how to deal with residues or post-harvest wastes. The objective of this study is to develop a machine for small — scale production of natural fiber from pineapple leaves, adaptable to rural condi­tions in Costa Rica. The proposed machine is of the scrapping type, in which the leaf is introduced and the machine eliminates the tissue covering the leaf fiber. The study showed that the machine has the capacity to process an average of 4.9 kg dried fiber/hour, with an average cost of US$0.49/kg of dried fiber. The study also found that the machine’s capacity varies for plant leaves from the first or the second crop, giving better performance with the leaves from the second crop. The fiber produced with the machine showed a greenish coloration created by the combina­tion of white, green, and yellow colors which were measured by the Color Systems CIE Lab. Once extracted, the fiber may be bleached with water, hydrogen peroxide 5 %, or chlorine 1 %, of which the most effective is chlorine 1 %, since it gives the highest color change to pineapple fiber.

Keywords Ananas comosus • Natural fiber • Fiber production • Production costs • Fiber bleaching

7.1 Introduction

Ananas comosus is commonly found in tropical regions, in any type of soil as long as it has good drainage and its pH ranges between 5.5 and 6.0 (Collins 1947; Ziska et al. 1991). The productivity level of this plant is higher in regions having average daily temperatures above 25 °C (Bertsch 2005), where up to two yearly crops are obtained (Acuna 2006). In Costa Rica, this species was planted for the first time in 1970 (Canapep 2012). According to estimations, there is at present 40,000 ha planted (GFA Consulting Group 2010), mostly of the variety MD-2, which has demonstrated better adaptation to environmental conditions (Acuna 2006; Blanco et al. 2011).

However, one of the major limitations of this culture is the large amount of post­crop wastes. Araya (1998) showed that close to 220 tons of wastes/ha/rotation are produced in an A. comosus plantation. Due to lack of processing technology or of commercial products, pineapple wastes have not received adequate management in Costa Rica (Moya et al. 2013a, b). A glyphosate herbicide is applied to plantations after the harvest. A week later, the plantation is burnt, which is an agricultural prac­tice considered unfriendly to the environment (Acuna 2006; MAG 2010).

Another inconvenience for the utilization of wastes is that the planted areas are segregated and they belong to small and medium producers, which makes harvest­ing and management of the wastes more difficult (Araya 1998).

A possible use that may be given to pineapple wastes, particularly to the leaves, is to produce natural fibers to make ropes and textiles, among others. Studies devel­oped by Paul et al. (1998) and Banik et al. (2011) determined that A. comosus has

high potential for textile production since only 3.5 % of the fiber is covered by a hydrophobic waxy layer, which makes processing easier since the need for mechan­ical treatments or substances to eliminate the fiber’s waxy layer is reduced. Furthermore, A. comosus fiber has been found to have suitable properties for mixing with cotton, jute, ramie, and other artificial fibers (Sinha 1982; Banik et al. 2011) and to manufacture interior components of cars (Banik et al. 2011; Holbery and Houston 2006; Neves-Monteiro et al. 2009). Kannojiya et al. (2013) analyzed the importance of pineapple fiber in commercial products in the textile industry.

Although Costa Rica lacks the technology to process A. comosus leaves, it does have the experience and technology to process and produce other types of fibers, such as Furcraea cabuya (cabuya). Although machines to obtain fiber have been manufactured in some countries in Asia (Banik et al. 2011, Kengkhetkit and Amornsakchai 2012), the conditions of the economy, human resources, and produc­tivity of the plantations in Costa Rica are different from those of Asia. In Costa Rica, for example, manpower costs are higher than in Asian countries; the density of plantations is also higher (70,000 plants/ha, whereas in Asia it is only 40,000 plants/ha).

For this reason, the present work proposes the development of a productive system to industrialize and produce natural fibers from the leaves of A. comosus, given their morphologic characteristics. In addition, the production and economic evaluation of the proposal for industrialization is presented, as well as color charac­terization of the pineapple fiber and three different fiber bleaching methods.

In many cases, polymer composite processing utilizes the same technique as poly­mer processing which includes injection moulding, compression moulding and extrusion moulding. There are some other techniques which are unique only to polymer composite processing. These include filament winding, pultrusion and hand lay-up. In spite of the fact that some techniques are used commonly with poly­mer processing, the operational conditions can be very different; thus, it is impor­tant not to directly transfer knowledge without careful consideration. In this section, a brief explanation of various processing methods is given in Table 10.3.

10.3.2.1 Compression Moulding

The compression is the most famous method for producing natural fibre-reinforced thermosets and thermoplastic composites (Khan et al. 2012; Sreekala et al. 2002; Lu et al. 2006). Natural fibre and resins are taken into mould after well mixing. The mould is then placed in between two plates. Those plates are joined with heating and cooling apparatus. Pressure can be fixed by using hydraulic press. A multiple type of finish products can be found with very simple operation.

This system is without the ability to keep a control on the factors involved in the cultivation process. For example, algal cells have a propensity to settle in the form of residue under the influence of gravity and therefore, availability of CO2 and light is sufficiently reduced. In addition to this, this system also lacks the capacity to supply an efficient amount of CO2 to algal biomass, thus decreasing the yield.

13.3.1.1 Circular Ponds

This system has the credit for being the first design to be commercially used for algae fostering. The major drawback of this system is that its scale is limited to an upper range of approximately 1,000 m2 . At this range, the stress makes the core pivot mixer unmanageable.

13.3.1.2 Open Raceway Ponds

In early 1950s, Oswald and his colleagues introduced this system, which is also known as high rate algae ponds (HRAP). This system is basically used for the treat­ment of wastewater by supporting the symbiotic relationship between aerobically active bacteria and algae. Circulation of broth and nutrients using a paddle wheel is performed in looped channels. The ponds are made up of concrete, PVC, or clay and are about 0.2-0.5 m deep, allowing deep penetration of sunlight. Carbon dioxide is directly taken from the surface air but aerators can easily be installed inside the pond to increase the level of CO2. Although this system is well developed, yet it still presents the problem of infection with unwanted algal species.

The most accepted structure of solid acid consists of a flexible carbon-based frame­work with highly dispersed polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons containing sulfonic acid groups (Shu et al. 2010). Figure 15.6 represents the proposed schematic structure of the sulfonated carbon materials. Every sulfur atom presents in the catalyst exists as — SO3H, the sulfur content obtained from the analysis was used for calculating the sulfonic acid density (Ezebor et al. 2014) while SO3H + COOH and SO3H + COOH + OH densities were calculated from ion exchange (Kitano et al. 2009). Figure 15.7 shows the amorphous carbon bearing SO3 H groups as an insoluble Bronsted acid available for various acid-catalyzed reactions (Nakajima and Hara 2012).

The large amounts of SO3H group are present in the polycyclic aromatic groups constituting the carbon sheets of aromatic carbon. The strong hydrogen bonding to SO3H groups results in strong acidity due to mutual electron-withdrawal and creat­ing the reason behind their higher catalytic activity (Hara 2010). Figure 15.8 shows the sulfonic acid group SO3H groups bearing amorphous carbon (Nakajima et al.

2008) . Hydrophobicity that prevented the hydration of -OH species, its high acid site density (-OH, Bronsted acid sites) hydrophilic functional groups (-SO3H) that gave improved accessibility of methanol to the triglyceride and FFAs, and large pores that provided more acid sites for the reactants are the factors that increase the high catalytic activity and stability of the activated carbon catalyst (Shu et al. 2010).

Sulfonic acid group (SO3H)-bearing amorphous carbon well regarded as carbon- based solid acid catalysts. SO3 H-bearing carbon particles with large surface area inhibit intramolecular Friedel-Crafts alkylation, thus shows greater catalytic activ­ity that are revealed from structural and reaction analyses (Nakajima et al. 2008). The hydrolysis of p-1, 4 glycosidic bonds in both cellobiose and crystalline cellu­lose can be catalyzed by carbon-based solid acid catalyst. The large adsorption capacity for hydrophilic reactants and the adsorption ability of p-1, 4 glucan is responsible for the high catalytic performance of the carbon catalyst, which is not adsorbed to other solid acids (Suganuma et al. 2010).

15.2 Conclusions

Activated carbons were prepared from huge variety of cellulosic resources including agricultural wastes, municipal wastes, plants residues, and non-edible oil cakes wastes considering that biomass is renewable, abundant, and low cost, either using chemical activating agent or physical agents. The effect of parameters such as activation temperature, and impregnation ratio on pore structure and surface chem­istry of resulting carbons were also studied. By nitrogen adsorption the pore struc­ture of the activated carbon was studied, however functional group analyzed by FT-IR. The surface areas of the activated carbons were strongly affected by the carbonization temperature and concentration of the activation reagent. The obtained activated carbons mainly have microporous characteristics. Consequently, obtained activated carbons from the agricultural or industrial waste biomass can be utilized for the preparation of further sulfonated activated catalyst; however the catalytic properties depend upon the nature of attached molecule/group (acidic or basic), with the possibility to be utilized as heterogeneous catalysts in different chemical reactions. However, further works on economic study, improvement of catalytic stability, and mechanical strength should be conducted.