The development of PV solar has been stimulated in the last four years in Sicily by Regional, National and European public founds whereas this technology is not yet competitive without any incentives, as regards the other conventional sources.

As a consequence of these public financing from 2000 to 2003, that amounts to nearly 60 M€, a new economic activity has been started up in Sicily and installed PV power will grow in the next months until 10 MWp.

Other relevant consequences are:

• 10,7 kt CO2 of emissions saved up;

• 4,3 ktep of primary energy saved up;

• 15,8 GWh of producible electric energy.

PV support calls for tender have granted an unsecured funding from 75 to 85% of the capital cost (VAT excluded) of plants. They have been addressed mainly to small grid connected systems with peak power up to 20 kWp. Also largest power plants and building integrated OV systems have been funded with specific calls.

It is also worth to note that Italian laws grant to small PV systems (up to 20 kWp) several facilities concerning the de-taxation of the produced energy and the definition of "typical energy exchange contracts” with electric companies

On the other hand, public financial support to Solar Thermal in the last years amounted to about 10 M€. The main result achieved consists in:

• 28,4 ktCO2 saved up;

• 10,5 ktep of primary energy saving.

Also for Solar Thermal system the typology of support is based on unsecured funding. The maximum rate of funding is 30% for a wide range of application: from building integrated installations to conventional medium-large DHW systems. Also high temperature systems for industrial processes or for thermodynamic power plants have been considered as eligible.

Further on-going sustain measures for solar energy (and other RET) are:

• the discount of 36% from the income tax rate for private house owners that install energy saving systems with a capital cost up to 48.000 €. Otherwise this benefit is shifted in the future and spitted in a five years long period;

• VAT reduction from 20% to 10% (always for house renovation works).

Table 1 lists the most important and recent calls for tender for PV and solar thermal financial support together with the related results.

Together with the energy and environmental results of these actions it is worth interesting to note their economic performance (table 2 and figure 1). If we observe the two indexes defined as the ratio between the amount of public funding (€) and the energy (tep) or environmental (tCO2) benefits these figures appear particularly high for PV.

This fact makes necessary to adopt very strict criteria for the assignment of the financial support in order to avoid a wrong use of public resources. Also a reshape of the global support policy must be considered.

Figure 1. Effectiveness of solar energy support actions

Assessment of PV potential and action to support further diffusion

The Energy Master Plan contains also an assessment of the PV exploitation potential in the civil sector based on the available roof surfaces. This figure arises form an analysis of several urban morphologies conduced with the support of GIS tool.

The gross and the net roof surfaces suitable for solar systems installation are the one related to the flat and south tilted roofs. The gross surfaces have been estimated starting form the total urban area utilising a reduction factor calculated for 10 sample cities in Sicily. The reduction factor from the gross to the net surface has been assumed equal to 0,2 according to the results of several previous studies.

The result, in terms of suitable roof area per person is 7,7 m2 that is a value very consistent with other experienced surveys. Once the total suitable surface has been assessed (for each city of the Region) is easy to calculate the global amount of solar energy which could be collected using appropriate systems ( photovoltaic panels, air and water collectors, passive solar systems).

Then, the energy potential production and total installable power have been calculated considering the following parameters:

1. П module = 0,12 (polycrystalline silicon);

2. П bos = 0,85;

This potential is obviously merely "technical” and absolutely unrelated by economic factors.

The results obtained emphasises the great PV-roofs solar potential, that could cover about 40% of total residential electricity consumptions as the below graphics shows (figure 2).

Figure 2. PV-roofs solar technical potential in Sicily

In spite of these enormous potential the actual exploitation potential is very low because of the economic performance of PV systems and the very relevant need of public resources in order to support this technology.

The Action Plans have to start up this technical and economic potential gradually, considering the nature and size of markets for these technologies and examining influences on market entry and penetration.

To achieve these objectives the action strategies will be:

•

assessment procedures for project funding have to reward with more emphasis the energy and the environmental benefits;

• a certain cost-policy should be implemented with the support of other Regions;

• activation of direct incentives to the small user such as bonus distributed by sellers and/or installers;

• tax relief mechanisms on Regional base;

• "result warranted contract” will be foreseen in order to ensure the performances of the system;

• a shift from capital cost to produced energy funding;

• technical and professional learning activities have to be supported;

• information campaign about solar PV plants on environmental and economic benefits has to be promoted.

In addition, in the short and medium term capital investments with unsecured financing of 75% (short term) and 60% (medium term) from Regional Government have been considered. In the medium term a reduction of unitary PV costs of about 20% have been hypothesized. Furthermore in the short and in the long term demonstrative actions of hydrogen production by PV systems have been proposed.

By the way in the Action Plant a specific intervention on Advanced Energetic Systems for the Minor Islands has been foreseen.

The following table shows the forecast investments and the expected outputs (annual values):

Table 3. PV actions in short and medium term

A rapid tool to evaluate the relationship between the amount of public funding, total annual producible energy, total annual CO2 saved up, power installed and unsecured financing is represented in the following figure. Obviously this graph can be utilised with a constant price of the PV system.

Marsh is a unit of Marsh & McLennan Companies (MMC), the world’s leading risk and insurance services firm. Marsh has 38,000 employees in over 100 countries. MMC is one of the leading consulting and financial services firms with 59,000 employees. MMC is the parent of Marsh, Putnam Investments and Mercer Consulting Group.

Main competencies are risk investigations and risk assessment (e. g. which damage can occur in a photovoltaic system or which liability can be claimed by third parties).

Main tasks for the clients is the risk reduction. This can be performed by consulting (e. g. investigations about fire protection or business contingency plans). Another way to reduce risks is through transfer on insurances but it has to be observed that in many cases
insurance is only the second best solution. It is better to reduce risks and avoid loss from the first.

The risk programs installed by Marsh are continually cared to adapt them to the current situation of the clients and the insurance markets. There is for example Marsh’s market security which observes the financial strength of insurers to do the utmost for protecting clients from an insolvency of an insurer.

In case of a loss, Marsh tries its best that clients receive the indemnification they have the right to.

Risks and insurance requirements differ strongly from branch to branch. In the power market there are risks due to the high values concentrated on the locations, in case of a damage utilities have the risk of extra cost due to the contractual obligation of power providing or the risk that charges of renewable energies law are not achieved.

Marsh takes this into account with the branch teams MIP’s (Marsh Industry Practices). MIP Power is one of round about 20 branch teams and works in the segments power producing industry and utilities. Engaged in MIP Power are Engineers, Scientists, Business Administration Experts, Lawyers and Insurance Experts.

The branch specialization allows an optimum Risk Management which results in special insurance programs for power plants, photovoltaic systems, wind turbines and more.

1.8 Previous Applications and Implemented or Non-Implemented Programs

One of the first successful large-scale experimental installations for direct solar energy transformation into heat was constructed at Tbilisi Metal Construction Factory in 1950. For the period of 1955-1957, 17 solar installations, intended for hot water supply, were constructed in various regions of Georgia. Presently, most of them no longer operate.

In the 1970-80s, a number of pilot projects involving solar water heaters, solar air heaters and conditioners for one, two and multi-apartment houses were developed and implemented throughout Georgia by Zonal Scientific-Research Design Institute of Typical and Experimental Design of Residential and Public Buildings (ZITED). Solar collectors installed on the roof of the institute provided hot water supply for showers for its employees during 200-230 days per year.

The first industrial enterprise mass-producing solar equipment in Georgia was a state owned organization “Spetsheliotbomontazhi”. It was founded in early 1980s and started production of solar water heaters (solar collectors) in 1984. During 1984-90, “Spetsheliotbomontazhi” manufactured 140 000 m2 of solar collectors, including 70 000 m2 of which were installed in Georgia. These were simple design low efficiency mass production units, but still a progressive step in those days. Besides solar water heaters, “Spetsheliotbomontazhi” manufactured solar dryers for tea factories in west Georgia, solar heated shower cabins, etc. Currently it operates under the name of “Mze, Ltd.” and still produces these solar collectors, but at very limited quantities.

A large project initiated in 1998, but still not implemented and stalled due to lack of further funding, is a Solar Settlement in Aspindza region (southern Georgia). This pilot project was supported by UNESCO’s World Solar Programme 1996-2005 and should have served as a model of self-sustainable village in mountainous region with micro-hydro, geothermal, solar and biogas sources of energy.

Energy production has been calculated with the software PVSYST 3.25 with corrections obtained from experience of E. Caamano6 and E. Lorenzo7 from IES-UPM and grid — connected plants of ISOFOTON.

Among these plants special attention has been paid to the “Photocampa” system8. The “Photocampa” is a PV generator, 350 kWp, integrated in a car canopy located in Tarragona (100 km from Barcelona). Since DC voltage is very similar, inverter manufacturer is the same and both installations are connected through a Medium Voltage Transformer, performance data of “Photocampa” helped to predict energy production of FORUM pergola. Besides, two quality control tests were performed by IES-UPM in Photocampa:

o Dirt in modules. 2-4% losses were obtained.

o Dispersion losses. 2% losses were obtained when classification was performed.

Using the meteorological station of the Physics Science School as a reference for annual irradiation (Ga(0)=1537 kWh/m[7]) the FOrUm PV pergola should work with a performance of 1250 kWh/kWp.

Image 4.- Aerial View of FORUM PV Pergola

III. Conclusion

In the context of the Forum Barcelona 2004, a large photovoltaic pergola, 50 meters high, has been constructed. A 443 kWp PV generator, with 2686 I-165 modules, will feed 3125 kW ACEF inverters. This PV grid-connected plant will generate 1250 kWh/kWp. [8] 2 [9] [10] [11] [12] [13] [14]

For investigation, concerning the way the shingle technology affects the module efficiency nine solar cells were interconnected by solder paste and fixed with SMD glue on the PCB. Since the solar cells were sorted according to their efficiency and the remaining electrical parameters could not be assigned only the comparison of the efficiencies was possible. This is shown in Fig. 3.

The measured values for the module efficiencies are afflicted with a relatively high error, since by the PCB the modules could not be measured with standard test conditions. The temperature at the solar cells was not 25°C but approx. 35°C. Under normal conditions the module efficiency should lie between minimum and maximum of the cell efficiencies if there are no further losses due to contacting. The module efficiency can be evaluated according to the following equation

modul efficiency =

If one proceeds from an error of ± 0.1% all measured module efficiencies lie between the cell efficiencies. Does one assume that the Uoc is underestimated one can state that the shingle connection with solder generates no additional series resistance.

Any object can be seen as a complex of different materials arranged in a defined manner in Euclidean space. The manufacture or development of such an object can be perceived as a re-arrangement of these materials by either removing or adding new ones. The most common manufacturing methods are based on assembling an entire body from separate parts. Such methods are applied to electronics as well, in which numerous circuits can be assembled by using a limited range of components: integrated circuits, wires, resistors, capacitors, etc. This method relies on standard elements, the manufacture of which involves different technological processes.

An alternative method based on standard processes was applied in the manufacture of integrated circuits. The planar process involves manufacturing solid-state devices and integrated circuits through the formation of regions with different types of conductivity in mono-crystalline semiconductors (germanium, silicon, gallium arsenide). In microelectronics based on planar technology, all structures are to be formed either near of a silicon wafer surface or coated with thin dielectric and metallic films. The depth of structures in silicon wafers and the thickness of coated films are nanometric (0,01 -1 p), so any of these layers can be approximated in terms of a two-dimensional space. The manufacture of structures is provided in specific places of a layer by etching, doping or deposition. Structure shape is performed by transfering the structural medium configuration to the object layer, via photolithography, electron — or ion — beam lithography, as well as X-ray lithography. Nevertheless, these technological processes are accompanied by so-called parasitic effects, which have been noted when planar technology was introduced in the early 1960’s. Their negative impact has become more significant with the reduction of structure sizes over the years. In 1969, these parasitic effects stimulated the search for new manufacturing methods, including self-aligning processes, which, in turn, provided the experimental background for self-formation.

A planar structure can be seen as a part of Euclidean space separated by two parallel planes and cylinder surface of any configuration. The distance between two planes is determined by the processes of insertion or by the coating rate of thin films, whereas the structure configuration in plane is to be created by the lithography process. In order to obtain a defined structural configuration in a homogeneous initial object, a structural medium is essential. The medium must be of an initial configuration and interact with the object in its distinct region. As a rule, the radiation medium (light beam, electron or ion beam, X-ray) is modulated in space. In microelectronics the object is generally a radiation — sensitive layer, known as a photoresist.

Any lithography process involves a transfer of a plane figure from medium to object and can be regarded as an example of a homeomorphic mapping where number and arrangement of figures in the object correspond adequately to the same in the medium.

The process of transfer figures from medium to object is illustrated by Fig. 1, and represents external formation, known as planar technology. The time and place of this interaction between a medium and an object are regulated by human or automatic factors.

The exposed photoresist regions initially are component parts of the object, but they will not comprise any part of the ultimate electron device. The photoresist regions merely reflect the configuration transferred from the medium, which will later define a distinct region in the wafer. Fig. 2a illustrates how these processes can be carried out in which 1 represents the silicon wafer, 2- oxide, 3- photoresist and 4- exposed photoresist.

Next step involves removing the exposed part of the photoresist by means of a developer (Fig. 2b). A window in the oxide layer is then etched through the photoresist window (Fig.

2c). The implantation of impurities through the oxide window can now be accomplished (Fig.

2d).

This is an example of how the interactions between chaotic media (liquid or gas) and a structured object produce a transfer of configuration from one object layer to another layer, which differs fundamentally from external formation. That is why these processes should be referred to as internal formation, recognised as self-alignment technology. The timing of the interaction is regulated by human or automatic factors, while interaction area is determined by the object itself.

In practice the self-formed layers will have a non-linear pattern because the layers are

three-dimensional. The oxide etching process described in Fig. 2 does not actually transfer exact vertical boundaries from the photoresist layer to the oxide layer. The points of contact between the etcher and the oxide shift perpendicularly from the surface. Consequently, the etching profile corresponds to a circular segment, as can be seen in Fig. 3a and b. If the etching process continues the plane structure begins to widen (Fig. 3c and d).

From a topological point of view a homomorpheous transformation occurs in this case because only geometrical change takes place. However, more complicated patterns can be achieved, as shown in Fig. 4,

where interaction of structured object with a chaotic medium predetermines the emerge of new patterns that didn’t exist in the initial topology. In this case non-homomorpheous

1. c-Si wafer

2. Metal

3. Polymer

4. Metal oxide

(a) Cross-section of three layered structure

(b) Top view of the same structure after metal oxidation

(c) Top view of oxidised structure (b)

(d) Top view of new figure arising by two initial structures 5 & 6 (metal) electroplating

The collection of biomass deriving from different sources needs specialised workers, adequate machinery and highly efficient work organisation. In fact, if biomasses come from forest utilisations, there is a need for heavy traffic roads and adequately large working yards. Biomass provided by agricultural tree crops relies on efficient mechanisation and specific agreements with farmers.

The results of these studies have been utilized in the definition of the Action Plan of the new Regional Energy Master Plan. For carrying out all the potential biomass, it is necessary to create some regional infrastructure, centres, where gather and transform the biomass into pellets. Has been identified in 26 the number of centre necessary in the Sicily context. By mean of an investment of 16 M€ is possible to create all the centre and to sell the finished biomass with a price of 60€/t. This price looks competitive with the national price of biomass. This centres could be created nearby the centres of gathering the dry substances of wastes consequently there would be many advantages coming from the possibility of sharing personals and means. According to the strategy to put up, has been identified that in the short term there is the need to activate the potential, to share the resources with the possibility to involve the audience. Regarding the users, has been suggested an incentive to buy the biomass heating systems equal to the 25 % of the total cost. Before any application of this incentive it would be necessary to create the centre for gathering the biomass as mentioned above. By an investment of 6M€ it would be possible to create 12 centres (located where there is more potential) and with 14M€ would be possible to finance the purchase of 19000 heating system for household users. By mean of this investment there would result in a saving of 201,56 GWh a year of fossil fuels and a save of 0.06 Mt of CO2 emissions. In the long term it could be possible to activate all the potential of agricultural biomasses, with an investment of 7 M€ is possible to create all the previewed centres and with 21 M€ to finance the purchase of 31000 heating system. Consequently would be produced a saving of 331,14 GWh a year and a reduction of 0,10 millions of tons of CO2 emissions.

Regarding the forest biomasses all the potential that could be activated is concentrate in two regional parks the first is “Parco dei Nebrodi” and the second is Parco dell’ Etna. In the short time is possible to activate all the potential by mean of an investment of 3M€ for create the centre of gathering the biomass in those parks. Even in this case has been considered to introduce an incentive for the purchase of the household heating systems. The total investment is of 4,5M€ and it would produce a saving 26,74 GWh of fossil fuels and reduce the emission of 8ktCO2.

To improve SRF it would be important to set all the investments into other planning system like territorial plan or rural plan in the way to not scatter the resources. By an investment of 15M€, in the long term, would be possible to plant 5000 ha of SRF with a saving of 42,32 GWh/y of fossil fuels and 0.048 Mt of CO2 emissions avoided. In the long period, will be also, possible to use the biomasses for hydrogen production by reforming or gasification technologies. Has been assessed that each ton of wood biomass can produce 60 Kg of H2 by gasification and the same weight can be produced by 200 kg of ethanol. The hydrogen could be used into projects of public transports or for micro generations in fuel cells.

All the actions are summarized into the following table where all the potential achievable in the time are presented. In the table are also presented the costs of the avoided emissions and of the saved energy.

If the renewable electricity is delivered with large fluctuations of the generated electricity, the availability of quickly responding power plants becomes increasingly important to avoid supply bottlenecks of the supply. Storage hydropower stations are among the most interesting technologies for this purpose and already exist with high capacities. This does not hold true for every individual country, however. The currently installed capacity in Germany is only 1.4 GW with a storage volume of 0.3 TWh, which in itself cannot provide any major contribution to long term regulation. The combination of such facilities, however, would play a significant role in a highly interconnected European electricity network. The Scandinavian NORDEL power system currently has an installed capacity of about 46 GW and a storage volume of approx. 120 TWh (s. also [Nor 97a] and [Nor 97b]). In the UCTE grid, to which Germany likewise belongs, the corresponding values are 49 GW and 57 TWh [UCTE 98] [UCTE 00]. The total storage capacity of the NORDEL and UCTE grid systems is thus equivalent to more than a month of average consumption in the EU and Norway combined. Dedicating these plants to the prevention of power shortages from other production would alter their routine operation, but could enable a very efficient system to be realized. It would probably also be worthwhile to increase the installed generating capacities of the storage hydropower plants, thereby increasing the ratio of rated generation capacity to storage volume to permit the compensation of additional fluctuating generation from other renewable sources. Only if the momentary output of resource-constrained power stations exceeds demand, and storage capacities are likewise filled also for all pumped storage facilities, will a portion of the potential renewable electricity generation go unused.

The better the renewable energy generation corresponds with the temporal electricity demand, the smaller the power requirements and the necessary storage capacities of the storage power plants engaged for backup purposes (s. [CDHK 99]). Generation variations may be smoothed by increasing the geographic distribution of the plants delivering fluctuating electricity ([CE 01]). In general, the expanse of the area required for smoothing increases with the length of time required to compensate for changes in production level. Seasonal variations require bridging distances of several thousand kilometers. The temporal smoothing effect differs according to the type of renewable energy and the technology employed as well as a more or less appropriate combination of the various production sites.

The actual trigger of the assessment of the solar energy resources is an initiative supported by the cantonal parliament requesting the government "to create an inventory of the surface areas on public buildings that are suitable for solar energy production purposes as well as to analyse the technical feasibility and opportunities for solar thermal and photovoltaic installations.” The Canton of Geneva has about 430’000 inhabitants, 78’000 buildings of which approximately 9’500 are "public buildings” owned by a total of 21 different types of public bodies on a territory covering 280 km2.

The approach has therefore many interesting features and challenging elements. Two main characteristics: first, a multi-stakeholder approach — from different authorities and departments (mainly DIAE Department for Environment and Energy and DAEL Department for Urban Planning and Buildings), via building owners to the power market and its multi-utility and customers — is needed to consult and involve the relevant people and institutions so that the different sectors concerned can actually support the analysis and subsequent conclusions for the strategy to be implemented. Second, the quantitative and qualitative dimensions ask for an innovative and efficient technical approach using up — to-date interfaces and tools, e. g. based on Geographic Information Systems (GIS), and proven assessment procedures in order to seize solar and architectural data on buildings and link them with other statistical data.

Innovation

By concentrating on the needs of and strong interaction with the defined target audience and on collecting and linking the solar energy relevant building data, the assessment of the solar energy resources is providing information, tools and networks that help enhance and strengthen the local energy policy. Examples for the scientific innovation and relevance are:

• Multi-stakeholder process bringing together different sectors relevant in the implementation of solar energy in an urban area

• Large-scale study of the solar energy resources in the Geneva territory

• Detailed analysis of the solar-architectural suitability in the public building stock

• Implementation oriented assessment of technical feasibility and opportunities

• Formulation of recommendations for further strategies in developing solar energy in the local urban context

The Department of Environmental Studies at Sonoma State University built itself an energy center in the 1970s, using student labour: this was completely rebuilt in 2000-1. The Center is located on the University campus, about 40 miles north of San Francisco.

The main space of the 2 200 sq. ft. Center is a large seminar room .This is flanked by offices and ancillary spaces.. The construction is well insulated: the walls and roof use structural insulated panels (SIPs) over a steel frame to eliminate cold bridging and minimize uncontrolled air infiltration. Thermal mass is provided internally by dense concrete block walls to the north and south of the seminar space, separating it from the subsidiary rooms, while the floor is exposed concrete. A tall panel of rammed earth separates the main space from the entrance lobby

The building is designed to minimize both heating and cooling energy use. The heating system is a hydronic loop embedded in the floor slab: hot water is pumped around this from a gas-fired boiler: however, this has been little used, due to the high insulation values of the building fabric and low infiltration rates. Additional winter heat is provided by the trombe walls located in the offices on the south side of the building. During the summertime, incoming solar radiation is blocked by external metal shades, effectively switching the trombe walls off.

Fig.6: Environmental Technology Center, Sonoma State University, Rohnert Park, California. Architect: AIM Associates.

These shading devices are also deployed in summer to minimize solar gain to the spaces on the south side of the building. A large canvas awning is similarly rolled out when required to shade the entrance lobby. The south facing clerestory window at the top of the main space has a roll down shutter which can also be used to exclude solar gain, or provide blackout when needed for lectures.

The summertime cooling strategy is thus helped by reduction in cooling load. Furthermore, night ventilation is used to cool the building, removing the heat stored in the thermally massive elements during the day. Panels in the north side of the clerestory lantern open to allow hot air out. Inlets are provided by the upper windows in the offices on the south side of the building; the lobby; and windows on the east wall.

The south side of the standing seam roof has a PV installation rated at 3kW. This is a building integrated system using amorphous silicate “stick-on” panels: all electrical connections are made within the ridge piece of the roofing system.

Potential for carbon trading

Each of the three buildings described above is expected to perform substantially better than the Californian norm (Title 24). Figure 7 shows a frequency distribution of C02 emissions due to electricity use for a sample of commercial buildings. Estimated performance by the three case study buildings is superimposed for comparison: respectively 65%, 50% and 20% of the Title 24 norm.

• monetary savings, purely in terms of avoided energy costs, can be considerable — even for buildings such as the Jasper Ridge Biological Preserve which incurred little if any additional construction costs for its energy saving features.

• recent prices for carbon are too low even, in themselves, to justify the transaction costs in entering a trading scheme [43]

the emergence of markets in futures in emission allowances. Another is the involvement of “novice” market participants. Most people, even facilities professionals, take key decisions about a relatively small number of new build projects during their careers.

Conclusion

At current values, carbon emission permits are worth little. However, this underestimates their value as financial instruments in limiting downside risk when a building owner is contemplating investment in low-energy measures.

The paper therefore concludes that carbon emission trading is a potentially valuable policy instrument in improving the uptake of energy efficiency measures in the built environment. Detailed design of policy instruments — such as the forthcoming EU-wide emission trading scheme — and co-ordination between different mechanisms, will have a vital role to play in bringing buildings to the carbon marketplace.