N. Saba, M. Jawaid, and M. T. Paridah

Contents

15.1 Introduction………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 248

15.2 Potential Non-edible Feedstock…………………………………………………………………………… 249

15.3 Homogeneous and Heterogeneous Catalyst……………………………………………………………… 251

15.3.1 Types of Heterogeneous Catalyst…………………………………………………………… 251

15.4 Activated Carbon-Carbon-Based Acid Catalyst…………………………………………………….. 252

15.5 Chemical Activation………………………………………………………………………………………… 252

15.5.1 Biomass for Activated Carbon………………………………………………………………… 256

15.5.2 Methods of Preparation of Activated Catalyst……………………………………………. 256

15.6 Structure of Activated Carbon…………………………………………………………………………….. 258

15.6.1 Catalyst Leaching………………………………………………………………………………. 259

15.6.2 Optimization of Parameters for Chemical Activation Reaction………………………… 260

15.7 Characterization of Activated Catalyst……………………………………………………………………. 261

15.8 Biomass Derived Activated Sulfonated Catalyst……………………………………………………. 261

15.8.1 Sulfonation of Activated Catalyst…………………………………………………………… 262

15.8.2 Structure and Figure of Sulfonated Catalyst…………………………………………….. 263

15.9 Conclusions………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 264

References …………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 265

N. Saba • M. T. Paridah

Department of Biocomposite Technology, Institute of Tropical Forestry and Forest Products (INTROP), Universiti Putra Malaysia, Serdang, Selangor 43400, Malaysia

M. Jawaid, Ph. D. (*)

Department of Biocomposite Technology, Institute of Tropical Forestry and Forest Products (INTROP), Universiti Putra Malaysia, Serdang, Selangor 43400, Malaysia

Department of Chemical Engineering, College of Engineering, King Saud University, Riyadh 11451, Saudi Arabia

e-mail: jawaid@upm. edu. my; jawaid_md@yahoo. co. in

K. R. Hakeem et al. (eds.), Biomass and Bioenergy: Processing and Properties,

DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-07641-6_15, © Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2014

Abstract The lignocellulosic material is most prevalently used in the production of agro based activated carbons. These catalysts have been established as benign alterna­tives to the heterogeneous alkaline catalysts and the unrecyclable-homogeneous acid and base catalysts heterogeneous catalyst have been considered a viable alternative since they eliminate the usual difficulties related to homogenous catalyst and can be reused several times and hence solved many problems. Biomass derived solid acid catalyst is the renewable source of energy whereas homogeneous catalyst are non-renewable and also contribute to the environmental degradation as their synthesis and production pro­cess are hazardous. The thermal inertness, good mechanical and thermal stability prop­erties make the carbon-based solid acids as the ideal catalysts for many reactions. Heterogeneous catalyst associated with high water tolerance, high selectivity, and high activity properties. Sulfonated carbons are the most promising solid acids. In the coming future need and the demand of more biodiesel is expected to increase, this encourages to consider the use of non-edible oil seeds as reliable as a sustainable feedstock for biofuel production. This work is aimed to give an overview on the production of solid acid cata­lyst and the potential of non-edible oil and cake waste as an alternative feedstock for the heterogeneous acid catalyst. This study also reviewed current literature on the activities and advantages of solid acid catalysts used in biodiesel production.

Keywords Non-edible oil • Feedstocks • Activated carbon • Sulfonated activated carbon • Biodiesel

15.1 Introduction

Major issues and the priorities in the present situation are the climate change and energy security in light of the environmental problems causing increased production of bio-catalyst as important source of solid acid catalyst, in both developed and developing countries. At present the prime focus of the scientists and the research­ers is the introduction of eco-friendly Green Technology. A solid acid catalyst must have the possibility to possess high activity and stability in the requirement for its utilization in low cost, renewable, and biodegradable biodiesel production. About more than 300 types of trees species are classified as oil bearing seeds and are potential source for biocatalysts generation (Subramanian et al. 2005).

Most usually all carbon-containing lignocellulosic materials are the promising mate­rials for activated carbon preparation (Ugar et al. 2009) although the coal is the impor­tant precursor of the activated carbon but the cost of production is high, the main concept is to consider cheap and efficient materials for the production of activated carbon.

Non-edible feedstocks are easily available and are economically feasible with respect to edible feedstock. In comparison to edible feedstock, non-edible like rubber seed, jatropha, sea mango are not suitable for human consumption because of its toxic and anti-nutritional components or constituent (Kumar and Sharma 2011). In contemporary research the main commodity sources for catalyst production from the non-edible discarded parts, different agricultural biomass based wastes and raw materials derived from plant species have been presented in Table 15.1. Moreover the cost of plantation for edible oil crops is higher than the non-edible oil crops, with an

exemption to palm oil plant (Kumar and Sharma 2011). Apprehension regarding environmental safety has improved over the years from a universal viewpoint. Nowadays rapidly fluctuating technologies, industrial goods and practices create waste that could impend towards public health and the environment (Shen 1995). Agricultural waste biomass presently one of the most challenging issue, which gained widespread serious attention from the past decades (Andrew et al. 2003). During the manufacture process of the olive in mills, olive mill waste water is pro­duced in large quantities, this waste water can be used as raw materials to yield valu­able product by both physical and chemical activation (Moreno-Castilla et al. 2001). Several variety of agricultural by-products (lignocellulosics) including peach stones (Molina-Sabio et al. 1995), date stones (Girgis and El-Hendawy 2002) and (Haimour and Emeish 2006), waste apple pulp in cider production (Suarez-Garcia et al. 2002), rice husks (Chuah et al. 2005), pistachio-nut shells (Yang and Lua 2006), and grain sorghum (Diao et al. 2002) have been investigated as activated carbon precursors. However, waste cakes received much less attention as a precursor lignocellulosic material for activated carbon production (Cimino et al. 2005; Bagaoui et al. 2001). Agricultural cake wastes are generated in each growing season like olive cake, some of them are used in boilers, some are dumped in the environment, and there they release harmful and toxic compounds by the action of fungi.