11.10. The environmental effects associated with the generation of nu­clear power are the result of a number of processes and operations. First, we have the various steps, which start with mining the ore required to manufacture the fuel assemblies loaded into the reactor (§10.4 et seq.). Although there are low-level radioactive wastes associated with milling and fuel manufacturing operations, their treatment is relatively routine and has not attracted public concern.

11.11. Nuclear power plants during normal operation release various gaseous and liquid effluents that affect the environment. The extent of the impact is determined by the transport of radionuclides through so-called “pathways” from their point of release to where people would be affected.

Releases must be “as low as is reasonably achievable” as a licensing re­quirement (§6.63). We will treat this topic in the next section but will defer a discussion of plant waste treatment systems and the management of low — level wastes until later in this chapter. The impact of accidents on the environment is treated in Chapter 12.

11.12. The management of spent fuel and high-level radioactive wastes has attracted considerable controversy. This is the third category to be discussed. Here again, the pathway concept is useful since harm is done only if the radioisotopes of concern manage to migrate to people in amounts above permissible levels.