7.3.1 The Hydrogen Economy and Fuel Cell Technologies

The International Energy Agency, in its 2006 review of world energy trends, fore­casts that by 2030, hydrogen-powered vehicles may have begin to “decarbonize” transportation — if, that is, production from low — and zero-carbon sources develops,
if there are breakthroughs in hydrogen storage and if the necessary infrastructure (requiring huge investments) develops.16 The chemistry of hydrogen combustion entirely avoids greenhouse gas emissions:

2H2 + O2 ^ 2H2O

whether this occurs in thermal power generation or in any of the presently developed types of hydrogen fuel cell (table 7.1).17

In principle, generating H2 from the most abundant potential source—water—is eminently straightforward, that is, the electrolysis of water, but the smallest amount of electricity that can produce 1 mol of H2 from 1 mol of water is 237 kJ, whereas the amount of heat generated by the combustion of H2 is 285.6 kJ.18 Although fossil fuels are the main source of electric power generation, switching to the “hydrogen economy” will only be an inefficient means of reducing the emissions of CO2 and other greenhouse gases because the net energy balance of this route to H2 production is no more favorable than that often calculated for corn-derived ethanol (chapter 1, section 1.6.1). Other routes are known, for example the direct thermal decomposition of water, and thermochemical, photochemical, and photoelectrochemical technolo­gies, but how “green” the resulting H2 production is depends critically on the mix of fossil and nonfossil inputs used for power generation, locally or nationally.

The Division of Technology, Industry, and Economics of the United Nations Environment Programme noted in its 2006 review that publicly funded research into hydrogen technologies was intensive in OECD nations (figure 7.4).19 Both OECD countries and a growing number of developing economies have active “hydrogen economy” targets:

• Japan was the first country to undertake an ambitious fuel cell program,

10 years of R&D funded at $165 million, completed in 2002; following on, the New Hydrogen Project focuses on commercialization, funding reaching $320 million in 2005 and with the aims of producing and supporting 50,000 fuel cell-powered vehicles by 2010 and 5 million by 2020 (with 4000 H2 refueling stations by then), 2,200 MW of stationary fuel cell cogeneration systems by 2010, and 10,000 MW by 2020.

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• The transition to the hydrogen economy envisaged by the U. S. government (the Hydrogen Fuel Initiative) is set to proceed via four phases, of tech­nology development, initial market penetration, infrastructural investment, and full realization to begin by 2025.

• Funding for the hydrogen economy in the European Union was provided by the Renewable Energy Sixth Framework program from 2003 to 2006, and subsequent plans are expected to generate combined public and private funding of approximately $2.8 billion by 2011.

• Canada’s H2 R&D focuses on the Ballard PEM fuel cell and the Hydrogenics alkaline water electrolyser, with public funding of more than $25 million/year.

• Korea has budgeted $586 million for hydrogen-related projects through to 2011, aiming at the introduction of 10,000 fuel cell vehicles, development of H2 production from renewable resources, and development of a 370-MW capacity stationary fuel cell.

• India allocated $58 million from 2004 to 2007 for projects in universities and governmental research laboratories, with car manufacturers expected to contribute $116 million by 2010.

• Russia began to fund ajoint project between the Russian Academy of Science and the Norlisk Nikel Company at $30 million in 2005 on fuel cell development.

• Brazil’s Hydrogen Roadmap focuses on production from water electrolysis, reforming of natural gas, reforming or gasification of ethanol and other bio­fuels, storage technologies (including metal hydrides), and fuel cells.

In 2007, the first liquid H2-dispensing fuel pump was installed in Norway as the first step in providing the “H2 highway,” a 360-mile route from Stavanger to Oslo
that is expected to be complete by 2009, whereas California launched a H2 highway network to include up to 200 fueling stations by 2010.