K. B. De

1.1 Energy (Yesterday, Today, and Tomorrow)

Today’s energy concept needs to be modified and should be presented as an integrated management-oriented approach. For example, the problem of nutrition of human population and livestock is also an important item in the energy inventory. So the per capita energy requirement will include 2000 kcal of the basal requirement in the form of nutrients; amount of energy required to produce that amount of food; energy required to preserve the food; energy required to collect the daily requirement of 600-800 L of water; energy required for washing, cleaning, and bathing; and energy required for lights, fans, air conditioners, and transport.

Today’s energy concept should also include the awareness that heat is a wasteful form of energy, always downhill, and hence efficiency is at the most 30-40% and that of an automobile is as low as 15-20%. Even if we go modern, a solar photovoltaic panel has an efficiency of 8%, a solar thermal power plant has 15%, and from sunshine to electricity through biomass is only 1%.

In order to establish innovative technologies for highly effective uti­lization of solar light energy, fundamental research is being conducted in the following areas:

1. Dye-sensitized solar cells: New types of dye-sensitized solar cells
mimicking the active sites of the natural photosynthesis system.

2. Artificial photosynthesis: Hydrogen production from water, using metal oxide semiconductor photocatalyst systems and effective fixa­tion of CO2 by metal or metal complex catalysts.

Estimated contribution of renewable energy resources in the United States by AD 2000, excluding hydro — and geothermal energy, amounts to approximately 5% of the estimated total consumption of 100 quads. Tropical countries, namely, India, receive 1648-2108 kWh/m2 of solar energy in different parts with 250-300 days of sunshine, most of which is unutilized.

While shifting our attention from today into the future, we should look at some discussions that took place in the 12th Congress of World Energy, a conference held in New Delhi, during September 18-23, 1983, the main themes of which were management, policy, development, and quality of life. There were four divisions, and each of these divisions had four sections containing 157 technical papers. In the concluding session, Dr. J. S. Foster, chairman of the program committee, on behalf of the International Executive Council, gave a summary.

1. Innovation: Commenting on innovation, a report from Israel nar­rated absorption refrigeration, and Austria reported on a thermal power plant, investigating a treble Rankine cycle using three sepa­rate working fluid loops. Brazil reported methane from urban refuge and collaborative international efforts on controlled nuclear fusion were highlighted.

2. Self-Reliance: Self-reliance has been well emphasized.

3. Diversification: Diversification in national or regional supply ensures a robust energy structure, reducing vulnerability to vagaries of nature, resource, or market fluctuations.

4. Dependence: Dependence on fossil fuels can be reduced with proper substitution by biogas, solar, wind, and nuclear powers.

5. Efficiency and conservation: Waste heat recovery, cogeneration, and recycling of energy were in the technological aspect. Public and social consciousness through education is the other aspect.

6. Development: International cooperation and development assis­tance should involve mainly (a) financial resources, (b) technology transfers, and (c) transfer of managerial and engineering skills.

7. Care of the environment: Pollutions from fossil fuels, nuclear reac­tors, and effects on forests and vegetation from dams are to be studied along with future expansion schemes.

8. Quality of life: Indiscriminate and unplanned use of energy may lead to negative and harmful impacts. Need for energy education

and man power training with an integrated approach has been rec­ommended.

9. Urgency:

a. World population will reach 10 billion in 2020.

b. Half of the population will have only 20 GJ/yr.

c. The other half in the industrialized countries will use 15 times as much, i. e., 300 GJ/yr.

d. “Firewood crisis” has changed to “firewood catastrophe” and the forest cover is diminishing globally at the rate of 250,000 km2/yr. Energy administration in developing countries depends mainly on three denominators:

(1) Growth rate of population

(2) Energy self-reliant populations growing in size but lowest rate

(3) Rural population largest in size, but lowest rate of energy consumption in most countries

Recommendations of new and alternative energy resources are available. The emphasis is on nonfossil and renewable resources, namely, biogas and biomass, solar active (photovoltaic), solar passive (preheating of water), wind, minihydroelectric, and minitidal resources. The major attempts for conservation include: conservation side legis­lation, education, awareness, management, and forecasting.

In Europe and South America, biomass and its modification have been given a lot of attention as a substitute to fossil fuels. The primary material, of course, is the waste of different plant and vegetable origins. The conversions are to biogas, alcohol, and manure. Proper selection of waste material may lead to optimal production of the right transform. Advanced countries, point out that electrical power is attractive in many respects and that the search for renewable and infinite resources to produce and supplement electrical energy should continue. Hydropower, solar energy, wind, solid waste, biomass, geothermal energy, ocean tidal power, and ocean thermal gradients are a few resources that need atten­tion. In fact, many institutions and organizations have created demon­stration models for these.

In the United Kingdom, the emphasis seems to be more on proper selection of local conditions and availability of the resources. Biomass and biogas need collection, transport, and processing to be properly useful for energy generation. Setting up aerogenerators, wind pumps, and solar heating will depend on available and favorable conditions and the proper location. If successfully implemented, they can reduce the local demand or share the load of a national power grid. The other resources that remain to be developed and commercialized are listed in the fol­lowing discussion.

1. Fusion of thermonuclear devices (an application of plasma physics):

21D + [1] [2]1D ^ [3]2He + n + 3.2 Mev 21D + 31T ^ [4] [5]2He + n + 17.6 Mev 21D + 21D ^ 31T + 11H + 4.0 Mev [6]3Li + n ^ 42He + 31T + 4.8 Mev 21D + 31T ^ 42He + n + 17.6 Mev 21D + 63Li ^ 242He + 22.4 Mev 21D + 32He3 ^ 42He4 + 11H + 18.3 Mev

7. Coal conversion: Many models for fluidization and gasification of coal are available.

8. Black box or hydrogen fuel cell: Usually, these use hydrogen as input fuel based on reverse hydrolysis (see last part of Sec. 1.6):

At anode: H2 ^ 2H+ + 2e~

At cathode: O2 + 4H+ + 4e~ ^ 2H2O

9. Hydrogen as fuel: Hydrogen as fuel is gaining popularity. The most common sources are from (a) excess of nuclear energy, (b) windmills, (c) hydroelectric power, (d) biological sources to some extent, (e) fuel cell (see Sec. 1.6), and (f) microbial hydrogen pro­duction (see Sec. 1.16).

10. Biological energy: A number of biological energy transformation principles, very attractive, remain at the conceptual state.