08.08.2015   Fertilization

Importance of Context

The domestic political economy influences the degree to which social sustainability can be implemented. As seen in the case of land grabs, which are often done for biomass production for fuels [23, 31, 32], national governments will often make deals that ignore local and customary land rights. Bartley [10] points to several key factors. Firstly, the nature of the relationships between the business and state will impact the readiness of firms to see value in quickly shifting to sustainability standards. Secondly, the clarity of legitimacy of property rights and their administration will affect the harmonization of domestic con­ditions with transnational regulations. Thirdly, the nature of the national political regime and its openness to non-business agendas will influence the incentives for international and domestic actors to pursue private arenas of rule-making in that context. These three areas of consideration highlight why vast differences may exist in the conceptualization of sus­tainability standards in the affluent democracies of Europe and North America compared to the on-the-ground implementation of sustainability standards in developing countries [10].

Table 17.2 Social criteria for sustainable biomass production and trading.

 

Areas of Concern Criteria

 

Freedom of association and collective bargaining

Prohibition of forced labor

Prohibition of discrimination

Least minimum wages

No illegal overtime

Equal pay for equal work

Regulations to protect the rights of pregnant women and breastfeeding mothers

Protection and promotion of human health

Farmers, workers, etc. are not unnecessarily exposed to hazardous substances or risk of injury

Safe and healthy work environment: machine and body protection, sufficient lighting, adequate indoor temperature, fire drills

Availability of documented routines and instructions on howto prevent and handle possible near-accidents and accidents

Performance and documentation of training of all co-workers; training ensures that all co-workers are able to perform their tasks according to the requirements formulated for health protection and environmental benign management or resources

Elimination of child labor: minimum age and prohibition of the worst forms of child labor

Children have access to schools; work does not jeopardize schooling Indigenous peoples’ and tribal rights respected

Recognizing and strengthening the role of indigenous peoples and their communities

Women are not discriminated against; their rights must be respected Spouses have the right to search for work outside the entity where the partner works

Farmers are content with their social situation

Access to potable water, sanitary facilities, adequate housing, education and

training, transportation, and health services

Promotion of education, public awareness and training

Market access for small-scale farmers and producers

Equitable access to forest/farm certification among all forms of forest/farm

users and tenure holders

Establishment of a communication system that facilitates the exchange of information

Availability of enough food of sufficient quality

No severe competition with food production and the shortage of local food supply

Energy supply in the region of biomass production should not suffer from biomass trading activities

Local organizations, institutions or companies involved in the process, through control and certification

Marginalized social groups should play an equitable role in certification

processes

Jobs should be generated

Trade-related skills development and social justice oriented capacity-building are facilitated through learning exchanges between trading partners Building and use of local labor and skills

 

Labor conditions

 

Protection of human
safety and health

 

Rights of children, women, indigenous peoples and discrimination

 

Access to resources ensuring adequate quality of life

 

Food and energy
supply safety

 

Capacity building

 

image106

Table 17.2 (Continued)

 

Areas of Concern Criteria

 

The activity should contribute to poverty abatement Stakeholder involvement in the decisions that concern them

Avoidance of land tenure conflicts Land ownership should be equitable

Tenure and use rights shall be clearly defined, documented and legally established

Projects should not exclude poor people from the land in order to avoid leakage effects

Farms must be "good neighbors” to nearby communities and a part of the economic and social development

A basis is created for strengthening the mutual confidence between business and the society in which they are active

Involvement of communities into management planning, monitoring and implementation

Transparency and accountability of negotiations Direct and long-term trading relationships

Fair and equal remuneration — all supply-chain partners are able to cover costs and receive fair remuneration for their efforts through prices that reflect the true value of the product. Risk sharing mechanisms are actively encouraged. Communication and information flow — supply-chain partners communicate openly with each other showing a willingness to share information Acceptance of the production methods by producer and consumer The activities do not lead to disadvantages for the local population like losses of jobs or food shortages

The activity carries advantages for the local population Long-term commitments, contracts and management plans

The activity should contribute to strengthening and diversifying the local

economy

Local labor and skills should be used

Professional and dedicated human resources are enhanced

Minimization of supply disruptions

Supply security for the biomass consumer

No over-dependencies on a limited set of suppliers should be created The activity should not block other desirable developments

 

Combating poverty

Democratic

participation

Land ownership

 

Community

(institutional)

well-being

 

Fair trade conditions

 

Acceptance

 

Long-term perspective Strength and diversification of local economy

Reliability of resources

 

No blocking of other desirable developments Landscape view

General

Compliance with laws
and international

agreements

Traceability

 

Increase and improvement of the variation of the landscape Conservation of typical landscape elements

Activities have to comply with national laws and international agreements All applicable and legally prescribed fees, royalties, taxes and other charges shall be paid

In signatory countries, the provisions of all binding agreements, such as CITES, ILO Conventions, etc., shall be respected Biomass has to be traceable

Biomass from non-certified resources cannot enter the trade chain A chain-of-custody control system is in place

 

Table 17.2 (Continued)

Areas of Concern

Criteria

Avoidance of leakage

• (Negative) leakage effects should be avoided

effects

• People should not involuntarily be driven from their land

• The biotrade activity provides local people with income opportunities that are at least equivalent in quality and quantity to the baseline situation (i. e., situation without biomass trade activity)

Strengthening the role of non-governmental organizations

• The role of non-governmental organizations should be strengthened

Improvement of

Generation of jobs

conditions at the

Generation of education opportunities

local level

Capacity building

Support of infrastructure development Enhancement of democratic development Increase of (farmers) income

Improvement of environmental management at the local level

Adapted with permission from Lewandowski and Faaij (2006) [30]. Copyright © 2006, Elsevier.

Not only do national political economies matter but the actors embedded within those contexts significantly influence the shape of transnational governance mechanisms. As Geisler [33] points out, on the African continent African governments and elites subordinate African needs to offshore interests. For example, in Mozambique the production of biofuels has resulted in poorer groups losing access to the land on which they depend, with major negative effects not only on local food security but also on the economic, social and cultural dimensions of land use, in part because of the late implementation of planning and monitoring tools to ensure social sustainability [34].

The emergence and adoption of multiple, dynamic sustainability standards is influenced by key initiators and stakeholders such as TNCs, NGOs, development agencies, and oth­ers. The position of the standard-setters and adopters within global value chains, national business and institutional contexts brings greater understanding to the proliferation and convergence of diverse sustainability standards, how multiple actors in value chains influ­ence the proliferation, variation, and evolution of sustainability standards within a certain industry [35]. Firstly, leading buyers, by responding to their target consumers, affect the transmission of selection of sustainability standards in producer countries through the com­munication of preferences to suppliers. Secondly, producer size and type differentiate the types of standards adopted in a particular country. Thirdly, national exporters and traders play an important role in transmitting standards on behalf of clients through facilitating and overseeing the process of implementation and certification.