A simple analysis of potential value per unit of dry biomass associated with various potential production systems may help identify suitable uses of agricultural biomass (Table 26.8.) These theoretical comparative financial values are exclusive of costs, which are extremely variable according to the application and scale of operation. These basic scenarios seem to indicate that the highest values of agricultural residues are ani­mal husbandry or cropping applications—only if the biochar can increase conventional yields. This demon­strates that a key focus for the development of a sustain­able biochar industry is the value of the product to an industry, rather than the cost of production per se. This also illuminates the aspects of supplying biochar with appropriate characteristics for the specific applica­tion, as it is likely that biochar applications will mature,
and standards for biochars will be sought by users assessing cost-effective product suppliers. In any case, it seems reasonable that small-scale waste-to-energy suppliers will be established at some point near rural settlements with the assistance of government subsidies in Australia. It also seems reasonable that various agri­cultural wastes will be co-fired, as well as potential adjustments installed to increase clean biochar produc­tion options. These projects can be a sound foundation to understand biomass-to-biochar technology by supplying sufficient volumes of relatively cheap and consistent biochars suitable for numerous medium — to large-scale research trials. It is further likely that bioenergy and biochar cogeneration at a regional level may be more cost-effective when agricultural wastes are leveraged by municipal solid waste resources, if quality control of municipal wastes is maintained. However, this will also require much evaluation and research for processing technology and downstream application suitability.

CONCLUSION

Taken in isolation, the cost and benefits of using biochar for only farm soil carbon sequestration may

not be a profitable activity. Yet, the net sum over the agri­cultural system in terms of biochars increasing conventional productivity may prove to be a more cost-effective option than existing operations in some areas (Antle et al., 2007). Notwithstanding economic issues, the greater scientific challenge is determining the efficacy of biochar carbon species in a range of specific agricultural production systems over both the long and the short term (McHenry, 2009, 2011). Inte­grated agricultural production systems require suitably high-resolution data to determine the agricultural sys­tems and regions that may be able to implement options cost-effectively and sustainably (McHenry, 2010). Thus, a coordinated and cross-disciplinary research approach will likely be the most effective means of utilizing exist­ing biomass/bioenergy activities for new agricultural applications (Nabuurs et al., 2007). Providing greater scientific rigor and certainty to farmers, environmental­ists, governments and the broader community require undertaking biochar research alongside their impacts on upstream and downstream activities (McHenry,

2011) . Once this research becomes available, it may pro­vide a form of indemnity to farmers before prematurely applying new systems and technologies that may be only cost-effective in highly specific situations. Conversely, if biochar feed additives prove effective, even in localized regions, a major source of biochar will be required, and as Acacia sp. are native to Australia, and also most major continents, this may have extensive global implications in arid, semiarid, and even some temperate regions (McHenry, 2010). Nonetheless, complex biological and agroecological production sys­tems require high-resolution information to determine where the best opportunities are to integrate these new diversification options into their existing production systems. In conclusion, the author offers a selection of key biochar-related knowledge deficiencies for Australian agriculture in bullet points,[2] and also numbered suggestions for groups in the West Midlands of WA:

• Key sensitivities of biochars in major West Australian agricultural operations (grains and livestock);

• Key sensitivities of biochar carbon sequestration in major agricultural operations;

• Energy, material, and cost flows of various biochar/ bioenergy conversion systems;

• Major feedstock availability in different regions, costs, and transportation logistics;

• Efficacy and cost of various biochar application technologies for West Australian conditions;

• The sensitivity of biochar industry to policy change and administrative changes;

• Development of biochar research that aims to create major benefits to agricultural productivity.

1. Proceed with caution

2. Understand carbon credit ownership in biomass provided to regional power stations

3. Test cropping benefits with affordable biochar

4. Using appropriate safety precautions, experiment with on-farm production and application of biochar on a small scale

5. Encourage research into effects of biochar on crops, animal nutrition, and animal health

6. Monitor technical developments of small scale (2—20 MW) gasifier power units

7. Consider relationships with local waste-to-energy projects using landfill

DISCLAIMERS

This material has been written for Western Australian conditions, and many conclusions do not imply suit­ability to other areas. The inclusion of biochar/bio — energy products or trade names do not imply recommendation, the comparisons are simply for a gen­eral audience, and are not sufficiently detailed for com­mercial comparisons or technical appropriateness for any one or range of applications. The omission of any locally available technology is unintentional.

Acknowledgments

This chapter would not have been written without the considerable experience and expertise of Dr Paul Blackwell, Department of Agri­culture and Food, Western Australia’s (DAFWA) Geraldton Regional Office. Dr Blackwell’s long-time contribution to this field of research in WA under particularly limiting funding and time allocations is an example to those of us following in his notable footsteps.