High-value phytochemicals may be produced from cultured plant cells, which can be far more expensive and demand far more complex, highly specialized technologies (to promote and sustain the growth, prop­agation, vitality and productivity of the cells) in compar­ison with other methods. Such approaches are generally developed for phytochemicals of pharmaceutical uses, as exemplified by the production of paclitaxel or other taxoids from cultured Taxus plants cells. Anthocyanin production from Ajugareptans, Aralia, Euphorbia milli, Fragaria, Oxalis, Perilla, Vitis, grapes or carrot have also been explored (Chattopadhyay et al., 2008; Tripathi and Tripathi, 2003).

Production from Microbial Fermentation

Microbial fermentation may be a viable phytochemical-producing technology, alternative to those directly targeting plants. A fermentative process is independent of plant harvesting cycle, suits for pro­cess engineering and control, and could be more economical than plant cell culturing. Specifically selected wild-type or genetically engineered microbes are fed (in addition to N sources, growth-stimulators, and other medium ingredients) with inexpensive fermentable sugars such as isolated glucose, corn steep liquor, whey or other coproducts from various plants, crops or dairy processings (Gupta et al., 2011; Dufosse, 2006; Mapari et al., 2005; Adrio and Demain, 2003). After fermentation, various steps such as cell disruption and solvent extraction may be applied to obtain, enrich or purify phytochemical products.

Full or semicommercial processes for phytochemical production by microbial fermentation have been devel­oped, as exemplified by the production of riboflavin from fungi (Eremothecium ashbyii, Ashbya gossypi), yeast (Candida guilliermondii, Debaryomyces subglobosus), or bacteria (Clostridium acetobutylicum) (Chattopadhyay et al., 2008), as well as other vitamins (Shimizu, 2008). Carotenoids may also be produced by microbial fermen­tation, as exemplified by the production of b-carotene from B. trispora or Phycomyces blakesleeanus; lycopene from Fusarium sporotrichioides or bacterium Erwinia uredovora; zeaxanthin from a Flavobacterium sp.; astaxan — thin from Xanthophyllomyces dendrorhous, Rhodotorula glutinis, Rhodotorula gracilis, Rhodotorula rubra or Rhodotorula graminis; canthaxanthin from bacterium

Bradyrhizobium sp.; and isorenieratene from bacterium Brevibacterium aurartiacum, Streptomyces mediolani, or Mycobacterium aurum. Production of certain therapeutic phytochemicals in microbial fermentation has been reported as well (Demain and Adrio, 2008).

Production from Algae via Aquaculture

As known producers of many compounds identical or homologous to plant-derived phytochemicals of industrial interest, algae have been explored for phyto­chemical production. Currently, the majority of commercial b-carotene is produced from Dunaliella sal — ina and Dunaliella bardawil. Astaxanthin may be pro­duced from Haematococcus lacustris; canthaxanthin from H. lacustris, Coelastrella striolata or Chlorella zofin — giensis; and lutein from Muriellopsis sp., Scenedesmus almeriensis or Chlamydomonas zofingiensis (Skjanes et al., 2012; Chattopadhyay et al., 2008). Algae may also produce vitamins and bioactive or dietary amino acids, proteins (e. g. phycobiliproteins from Spirulina (Artho- spira) platensis), lipids or fatty acids, or phycocolloids (agar, carrageenan and alginate) (Brennan et al., 2012; Becker, 2004). Those algae may be grown and harvested either outdoor (aquaculture) or indoor inside factory tanks, as selected wild types or genetically engineered strains.