Global amounts of carbon in forest ecosystems are 330 GtC in the forest biomass and 780 GtC in the soil after Dixson et al., 1994. Furthermore, uptake of carbon in net by forest ecosystem is regulated photosynthesis and respiration controlled by meteorological and ecophysiological characteristics of forest trees and understorey vegetation. Amount of carbon storage in the forest ecosystem classified into vegetation above ground, vegetation below ground, litter and woody debris, and also organic carbon in the soil. Forests and soils contain the largest stocks of organic matter globally, and organic carbon in the soil has a potential to release more CO2 by increasing soil respiration and to increase atmospheric high concentration of CO2 under the warm condition in the future. The trunk of tree is useful for timber and part of timber are reserved in the houses for long time. Plant growth can be stimulated by increased atmospheric CO2 concentrations and nutrient deposition (fertilization effects). However, in the field studies, the fertilization effect is not clear for forest ecosystems.

With various degrees of treatments including anaerobic digestion, dewatering, drying, incineration and/or melting, the sewage sludge is recycled and utilized as shown in Fig. 2.14.3.

By anaerobic digestion treatment, organic fraction of the sewage sludge is degraded by anaerobic microbes and converted to biogas. Since the biogas mostly consists of methane and carbon dioxide, it can be used as fuel for a gas engine or a gas boiler to generate electricity and/or steam/hot water, which, in turn, can be used at the wastewater treatment facility.

By-products of dewatering, incineration or melting treatment of sewage sludge can be utilized as a fertilizer/soil conditioner in agricultural applications, or as construction materials such as aggregates, tiles and water-permeable blocks in civil engineering applications. Rapid expansion of recycling and utilization of the by-products of sewage sludge treatments is expected to continue in the future.

Further information

Japan Sewage Works Association: Sewage facilities planning, policy and explanation (second part) 2001, pp.15-47, Japan (2001) (in Japanese)

Japan Sewage Works Association: Sewage facilities planning, policy and explanation (second part) 2001, pp.335, Japan (2001) (in Japanese)

Japan Sewage Works Association: Japan Sewage Works 2005, pp.141, Aikosha (2005) (in Japanese)

The Japan Institute of Energy: Biomass Handbook, Ohmsha, pp.70-72, Ohmsha (2002) (in Japanese)

The liquid, gas and char are obtained by pyrolysis. The liquid has high moisture from original moisture (8-40%) and produced water (14-17%), and it is a mixture of water and polar organics. Its higher heating value is around 12.5-21 MJ/kg. The relationship between the viscosity and heating value of the liquid is shown in Fig. 4.3.2. Higher moisture content results in lower viscosity and lower heating value. In addition, the liquid is unstable, and any improvement is required.

The pyrolysis gas has much CO2, and CO, H2,

C1-5 hydrocarbon as combustible gas. The char has the higher heating value of 32 MJ/kg, and it is suitable as a feedstock for activated carbon.

However, all of the char is usually used as heat resource for the pyrolysis system.

2.5.1 What is lactic acid fermentation?

Lactic acid has alcohol (OH) and carboxylic (COOH) sites inside the molecule. Since it includes chiral carbon, it has two chiral isomers, Ddactic acid and L-lactic acid. Recently, demand of poly-lactate, a biomass plastic, is increasing, and demand of lactic acid is also increasing as a raw material of poly-lactate. Then the lactic acid with almost 100% of the optical purity is strongly requested. Generally, lactic acid is produced by chemical syntheses or by microbial fermentations. In the chemical syntheses, a method using hydrolysis of lacto-nitrile is usually adopted, yielding D-lactic acid and L-lactic acid half by half of which the optical purity is nul. Thus lactic acid for the production of poly-lactate is always produced by fermentation. Lactic acid can be produced by either bacteria or fungi. Here the lactic acid fermentation with bacteria is focused on.

6.7.1 Outline of energy models

An energy model is a mathematical model that expresses energy systems. Since energy systems including primary energy production, energy transportation, and energy conversion are complicated, it is difficult to get intuit insight about the desired energy system. Using the energy model they can analyze an economic energy systems and energy structure in the future.

An energy model is divided into two kinds that are a simulation type and an optimized type. The simulation type is a type that assembles energy system composition in the future deductively from the initial condition of the energy system and various kinds of exogenous assumptions such as future population and economic growth rates.

The optimization type is a type that uses mathematical optimization technique and finds the optimal energy system under exogenous constraints. The typical optimal standards are minimization of energy system cost and maximization of total consumption in the society. The typical exogenous constraints are energy resource constraints and data of energy conversion technologies.

Many new ethanol plants using both molasses and cassava will begin production in 2008; it is expected that by December 2008 the total production capacity will reach 8 Million litres /day and Thailand can produce much more due to the surplus of raw materials for ethanol. As for biodiesel, the government started to promote the new oil palm plantation with a target to increase area by 200,000 acres/year for the next 5 years so that raw material will be sufficient to meet the target for biodiesel production. By 2011, it is expected that Thailand will have 1.1 million hectares of oil palm plantation, at least half of the production will be used for bioenergy production by 2011. In this respect, the bioenergy crop development in Thailand, given the appropriate policy implementation, will be the new engine of growth to increase the income for rural agricultural sectors. It is also foreseen that co-operation among the Greater-Mekong subregion in biomass energy areas will also enhance the significance of energy sufficiency development in the region.

Successful examples

Thailand is today the only country in Asia to adopt bioenergy into the main consumer market where both bioethanol and biodiesel blends are available in all region of the country. Renewable electricity and heat/steam are also promoted in the industry and substantial progress are being made to meet the target set by the government.

MTEC and NSTDA will focus on the R&D efforts to help the industry and the small and medium enterprize to adopt and integrate bionergy into their respective energy production and utilization. The success of Thailand will be a good example for other countries in the region, especially LPDR, Cambodia, Myanmar and Vietnam, to explore the ways forward with this new developmental vehicle. It is expected that CDM mechanism and climate-change adaptation schemes will become a significant developmental issue in the coming years.

At the fuel production from biomass resource, much energy input (Ef) from outside is necessary for the producing process. In addition, a part of biomass becomes biomass waste (Ew) (Fig. 1.2.3). For a energy production system, [Ez-Ef-Ew] should be higher than zero at least. Ez: the gained bio-fuel energy.

[Biomass Eo] —— (production process) —— [Bio-fuel Ez]

[Fossil, electric Ef]—J 1——[Biomass waste Ew]

Fig. 1.2.3. Biomass energy balance for the income and expense.

Total energy yield in this system is shown as Ez/[Eo + Ef], if the value is lower than 0.5, the biomass is merely auxiliary fuel. But even small part of biomass can contributes to new energy system if energy balance ratio (products/invested fossil fuel) is over than 1, in the case of coal-biomass mixed combustion generation. When biomass waste can substitute a fossil fuel in the system, the Ef is so decreased that the energy balance ratio is much improved. The typical success example is found at cane sugar industry which uses bagasse as an alternative fossil fuel. Biomass production system with inferior energy balance ratio often loses its casrbon-neutral sustainability. In agriculture, production of grain and potatoes, the energy balance ratio is about 1.5~5 (neglected man-power calculation), while lower than 0.5 in almost vegetables that is on loss-making railroad line. In this point, forestry is more excellent than agricultural crops because of a little cultivation energy.

(a) Man-power investment. Inceasing of man-power is often able to cut down a fossil and/or electric energy consumption, causing an improvement of apparent energy balance ratio. However, man-power and fossil energy has a trade-off relation. Energy unit for man-power is estimated by 0.073 toe/yr/man (biological standard)~1 toe/yr/man (total life consuming). Labor intensive production often gives a faked saving energy system.

(b) Cycling of N, P,K. N (nitrogen), P (phosfer), and K (kalium) are main components of fertilizer. They so often disappears by exploitative production that a recycling system is necessary to hold N, P and K in soil. At a woody thermal power station, it is necessary to return the ash for sustaining P and K. Component N cannot stay in the ash, so another N-supply route is indispensable to restore the system. Exceptionally, traditional forestry need not any fertilizer because there is sufficient nitrate-N from rain. But future energy forestry will demand N-fertilizer because the N-balance will collapse.

(c) Conservation of biodiversity. Biodiversity is often fragile by enhancing a biomass production according to the uniformity, the large scale farm, and the intensive process. For example, mixed cropping like agroforestry, is hopeful to have a sustainable soil conservation.

Further information

Sano, H.in “Biomass Handbook”, Japan Institute of Energy Ed., Ohm-sha, 2002, pp.311-323. (in Japanese)

UN Energy “Sustainable Bioenergy: A Framework for Decision Maker”, 2007.

Sugarcane is a tall perennial grass and cultivated widely in tropical and subtropical regions of the world for sugar production. It belongs to genus Saccharum and most commercial varieties are hybrid with S. officinarum. In 2006, total sugarcane production of the world was 1,392 million tons in 20.4 million ha of harvested area. The biggest sugarcane producer is Brazil and followed by India, China, Mexico and Thailand (Fig. 2.8.7). The yield of sugarcane in Thailand is about 49.4 ton/ha averaged over whole 0.97 million ha of harvested area (Fig. 2.8.8).

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Stem cutting with buds is used for planting. Sugarcane is C4 plant with high photosynthesis

Read More 17.08.2015   The Asian Biomass Handbook Molasses Molasses is a by-product of sugar processing from sugarcane. This black thick syrup remains after sugar has been extracted from sugar juice. In Thailand, sugar industry is closely regulated by OCSB (Office of the Cane and Sugar Board) via the Cane and Sugar Act of 1984. The OCSB has an important role in ensuring fair distribution of the revenue between the sugar mills and sugarcane growers. As shown above, about 10,000 km2 (1 million ha) of sugarcane plantation area (green) is clustered in four regions (spanning 49 provinces) showing all 45 sugar mills (red). The molasses production strongly depends on sugarcane production. In general, 1 Mg (1 t) of sugarcane would yield molasses by about 45-50 kg, and 1 Mg (1 t) of molasses can be processed to produce 260 dm3 (L) of ethanol. For 60 Tg (Mt) of sugarcane production in 2007, 3 Tg (Mt) of molasses is produced. Of this 3 Tg (Mt), 1 Tg (Mt) is used among liquor, yeast, cooking sauce, MSG (mono sodium glutamate), vinegar and animal feed industries while 2 Tg (Mt) can be used to produce ethanol totaling about 520 dam3/year (million L/year) or 1.4 dam3/d (million L/day). Initially, Ministry of Energy required licensing for a fuel ethanol plant but later on it was not required. At the moment, there are 7 total fuel ethanol plants (6 from molasses/sugar and 1 from cassava) operating at the capacity about 1 dam3/d (million L/day). About 12 more plants are currently being constructed with half using cassava as a feedstock. The total additional capacity is 1.97 dam3/d (million L/day). This drive for ethanol capacity building is a result of the governmental initiative on using 10% ethanol-blended gasoline or so-called “gasohol E10” for both 91 & 95 octane rating. Recently, gasohol E20 (octane rating of 95) or 20% ethanol-blended gasoline will be commercially available at selected gas station from January 1, 2008 onwards. For molasses export market, Thailand has recently become the largest molasses exporter (value at $41.6 M in 2004), where the second and third largest are USA and Guatemala. About 37% of the export goes to ASEAN countries, and other 53% goes to other countries in Asia. Other molasses exporting countries nearby are Philippines, Indonesia and Australia. Read More 17.08.2015   The Asian Biomass Handbook What is hydrothermal liquefaction? Hydrothermal liquefaction is pyrolysis in hot compressed water of around 300°C and 10 MPa. Biomass is converted into gas, liquid and solid, like common pyrolysis in gas phase. The light tar fraction, such as pyroligneous, can be dissolved in water, and the heavy tar fraction can be obtained in the mixing with char. That is, products are gas, aqueous, and oily material. aqueous soluble fraction is dissolved, and extraction is applicable. At above 150°C, hydrolysis occurs, and biomass polymers, such as cellulose, hemicellulose, protein, and so on, are degraded into monomer. At around 200°C and 1 MPa, solid like biomass is changed to slurry (liquidization), and oily product, however, is not obtained. At severer condition of 300°C and 10 MPa, liquefaction occur, and oily product is obtained. When reaction condition is changed such as reaction time or catalyst, main product can be changed to char (hydrothermal carbonization). At around critical point and with catalyst, biomass can be gasified (see Chapter 4.5). Read More Календарь Май 2024 Пн Вт Ср Чт Пт Сб Вс   1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31   Рубрики 1 BIOFUELS A Look Back at the U. S. Department of Energy’s Aquatic Species Program: Biodiesel from Algae A. Worrall ABOUT THE AUTHOR ACCELERATOR DRIVEN SUBCRITICAL REACTORS ADVANCED BIOFUELS Advanced Biofuels and Bioproducts Advanced separation techniques for nuclear fuel reprocessing and radioactive waste treatment ADVANCES IN Advances in Biochemical Engineering/Biotechnology Advances in Biofuels Advances in Biorefineries Alcoholic Fuels Algae Energy All alternative energy Alternative transportation An Indispensable Truth An Introduction to Nuclear Materials AN INTRODUCTION. TO THE ENGINEERING. OF FAST NUCLEAR REACTORS ANNEX III. AHWR. Bhabha Atomic Research Centre, India ATOMIC ACCIDENTS BACKGROUND Bioenergy Bioenergy — Realizing the Potential Bioenergy from Wood BIOENERGY. RESEARCH:. ADVANCES AND. APPLICATIONS BIOETHANOL BIOFUEL'S ENGINEERING PROCESS TECHNOLOGY BIOFUELS BIOFUELS 1 Biofuels and Bioenergy Biofuels for Road Transport Biofuels from Agricultural Wastes and Byproducts BIOFUELS FROM ALGAE Biofuels Refining and Performance BIOGAS BIOGAS 1 BIOMASS — DETECTION, PRODUCTION AND USAGE Biomass and Biofuels from Microalgae Biomass Conversion Biomass Gasification and Pyrolysis BIOMASS NOW — CULTIVATION AND UTILIZATION BIOMASS NOW — SUSTAINABLE GROWTH AND USE Biomass Recalcitrance Biomasses identities Biotechnological Applications of Hemicellulosic Derived Sugars: State-of-the-Art Biotechnological Applications of Microalgae Biotechnology. for Fuels and Chemicals Cellulosic Energy Cropping Systems Comprehensive nuclear materials DESIGN FEATURES TO ACHIEVE. DEFENCE IN DEPTH IN SMALL AND. MEDIUM SIZED REACTORS Design of Reactor Containment Systems for Nuclear Power Plants ENERGY Energy Efficiency ENERGY SERVICES IN THE HINDU KUSH HIMALAYAN REGION Energy Storage Estimating Loss-of-Coolant Accident (LOCA) Frequencies Through the Elicitation Process EUROSUN 2008 EuroSun2004 EuroSun2008-10 EuroSun2008-11 EuroSun2008-13 EuroSun2008-2 EuroSun2008-3 EuroSun2008-4 EuroSun2008-5 EuroSun2008-7 EuroSun2008-9 EXAMPLES OF REACTIVITY-CONTROL SYSTEMS Exploitation des creurs REP Fast Breeder Reactor Programs: History and Status Fast Reactor Safety. (Nuclear science. and technology) Fertilization Frequency Response Testing. in Nuclear Reactors Fuels and Chemicals. from Biomass Gebaudetypologie Bayern Geothermal Energy GREEN BIORENEWABLE. BIOCOMPOSITES Handbook Nuclear Terms Handbook of biofuels production Handbook of Small Modular Nuclear Reactors Hydrogen — Fuel Cells Hydropower IAEA RADIATION TECHNOLOGY SERIES No Infrastructure and methodologies for the. justification of nuclear power programmes Innovative Biofibers from Renewable Resources Integral design concepts of advanced water cooled reactors Introduction to Nuclear Power Liquid Biofuels: Emergence, Development and LIQUID, GASEOUS AND SOLID BIOFUELS — CONVERSION TECHNIQUES Management von Biogas-Projekten Materials' ageing and degradation in. light water reactors Microbes and biochemistry of gas fermentation Modern Power Station Practice Natural circulation data and methods for advanced water cooled nuclear power plant designs Natural gas Neutron Scattering Applications and Techniques Nuclear and Radiochemistry Nuclear Back-end and Transmutation Technology for Waste Disposal NUCLEAR CHEMICAL ENGINEERING NUCLEAR ELECTRIC POWER Nuclear energy Nuclear Power and the Environment Nuclear power plant life management processes: Guidelines and practices for heavy water reactors NUCLEAR POWER PLANTS NUCLEAR POWER the PUBLIC Nuclear Reactor Design NUCLEAR REACTOR ENGINEERING Nuclear Reactors 1 NUCLEAR REACTORS 2 Others Particle Image Velocimetry (PIV) Passive Safety Systems and Natural Circulation in Water Cooled Nuclear Power Plants PHYSICS OF. HIGH-TEMPERATURE. REACTORS POWER Pretreatment Techniques for Biofuels and Biorefineries Principles of Fusion Energy PROCESS SYNTHESIS. FOR FUEL ETHANOL. PRODUCTION Production of Biofuels and Chemicals with Ionic Liquids Progress, Challenges, and Opportunities for. Converting U. S. and Russian Research Reactors Pumping Pyrolysis Radioactive waste management and contaminated site clean-up Recycling of Biomass Ashes Renewable Energy Products Rudiger Meiswinkel, Julian Meyer, Jurgen Schnell Second Generation Biofuels and Biomass Small modular reactors (SMRs) the case of Russia solar energy Solar Thermal and. Biomass Energy Sonar-Collecttors SonSolar Springer Series in Materials Science Study on Neutron Spectrum of Pulsed Neutron Reactor Sustainable Biotechnology Switchgrass Technologies for Converting Biomass to Useful Energy The Asian Biomass Handbook The Experimental Analyze Of The Solar Energy Collector The Future of Nuclear Power Thermal biomass. conversion and utilization —. Biomass information. system Thoria-based Nuclear Fuels Type of Membrane Contactor Suitable for CO2-O2 Exchanges in Culture Broth Vereinfachtes Verfahren WAS INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK Why We Need Nuclear Power wind power WORKSHOP ON NUCLEAR REACTION DATA AND. NUCLEAR REACTORS:. PHYSICS, DESIGN AND SAFETY Автономное энергообеспечение Альтерантивная энергия Альтернативные источники энергии и энергосбережение Без рубрики Биотопливо Ветровая энергия Ветрогенераторы, солнечные батареи и другие полезные конструк­ции Возобновляемые источники энергии ВОПРОСЫ ТЕОРИИ. И ИННОВАЦИОННЫХ РЕШЕНИЙ. ПРИ ИСПОЛЬЗОВАНИИ. ГЕЛИОЭНЕРГЕТИЧЕСКИХ СИСТЕМ ГЕЛИОЭНЕРГЕТИКА Другая энергия Зарядные станции Источники питания Источники энергии ИСУ Концентраторы солнечного излучения КРЕМНИЕВЫЕ СОЛНЕЧНЫЕ БАТАРЕИ Получение кремниевых пластин для солнечной энергетики Применение солнечной энергии Разное Солнечная электроэнергия Солнечная энергия Солнечная энергия — использование Солнечные батареи Солнечные коллекторы Солнечный ДОМ ТОНКОПЛЕНОЧНЫЕ. СОЛНЕЧНЫЕ ЭЛЕМЕНТЫ. НА ОСНОВЕ КРЕМНИЯ ФОТОЭЛЕКТРИЧЕСКОЕ. ПРЕОБРАЗОВАНИЕ. 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