The waste management strategy for spent fuel and high-level waste is affected by the nuclear fuel cycle policies being adopted. Two distinct nuclear fuel cycles are employed (recognizing that some countries have postponed the decision on which approach to adopt (‘wait and see’ approach)):

• Open fuel cycle in which the spent fuel is considered to be a high-level waste (HLW);

• Closed fuel cycle in which the spent fuel is reprocessed to recover unused uranium and the plutonium generated from U-238 by neutron capture, with the production of HLW.

Spent fuel and HLW are highly radioactive and heat generating and need to be cooled and shielded. Deep disposal in geological repositories is generally considered to be the best way to provide a permanent management solution for spent fuel and HLW. While most countries with spent fuel and HLW are working towards national solutions, others, for mainly economic reasons, have indicated an interest in developing multi national disposal facilities.

Disused sealed radioactive sources

The preferred option for the management of disused sealed radioactive sources is to return them to their supplier for reuse or disposal. Sometimes this is not possible, especially for older sources whose supplier is not known or is no longer in business. Alternative solutions are therefore necessary.

Disposal options for disused sealed radioactive sources vary depending on the activity levels and types of radionuclides in the sources. Near-surface repositories may be suitable for low-activity short-lived sources. For long-lived disused sources with activity levels exceeding the criteria for disposal in a near-surface repository, underground disposal is the preferred option. For countries without the prospect of such repositories, the possible development of multinational geological repositories in the future would be of interest. Another possibility is the development on national territory of a special type of borehole disposal facility intended specifically for the disposal of disused sealed radioactive sources.

The current state of affairs in the area of radioactive waste disposal is that repositories for the disposal of all types of low — and intermediate-level waste exist in many countries. Most spent nuclear fuel and high-level waste is held in storage in above ground structures. Progress is being made in the development of geological repositories for spent fuel and high-level waste in several countries and, in particular, the repositories in Sweden and Finland are expected to be in operation within ten years.