Nuclear science and technology is highly demanding intellectually, and nuclear deployment requires a high level of expertise in human resources (as presented in Chapter 6 of this book). Past experience has shown that the introduction of nuclear power in a country can be the driver for the establishment of new educational programmes, scientific and technological institutions, and organizations and research centres. As nuclear science and technology also have other uses, these new institutions and activities can be considered beneficial for a country as a whole.

The stagnation of nuclear development created in many countries after the Three Mile Island unit 2 (TMI-2) and Chernobyl-4 accidents was imme­diately detected in educational systems. Nuclear courses that were very prominent and well attended in the 1970s and during the first half of the 1980s in European and American universities almost completely disap­peared. Most of the high-level experts prominent in those years are now entering retirement age, and thus a gap in high-level human resources is growing. This situation has been recognized by international and suprana­tional organizations such as the IAEA, the NEA/OECD and the European Council, as well as by leading nuclear technology countries. INSAG has also voiced its concern over the need for human resources in nuclear safety research (INSAG, 2003) and new educational programmes have been created to cope with the situation.

The IAEA has created a new series of teaching modules and materials which are described in Appendix 3 of this book. A World Nuclear University (WNU) was created within the World Nuclear Association (WNA) and the World Association of Nuclear Operators, which also has the support of the

IAEA and the NEA/OECD, and which includes leading universities and nuclear education institutions in more than 30 countries. The WNU is a ‘global partnership committed to enhancing international education and leadership in peaceful applications of nuclear science and technology’.

Similarly, in Europe, a programme (within the fifth framework pro­gramme for research and training activities) was launched on high-level nuclear engineering education, giving rise to the European Nuclear Education Network (ENEN), a non-profit association formed in 2003. As of March 2011, the ENEN has 60 members and partners in 18 EU countries, South Africa, the Russian Federation, Ukraine and Japan, consisting of 33 effective members, primarily academics, and 27 associate members, includ­ing nuclear research centres, industries and regulatory bodies.

A similar organization, the Asian Network for Education in Nuclear Technology (ANENT), was created within the auspices of the IAEA to serve the Asian countries, ‘to promote, manage and preserve nuclear knowl­edge and to ensure the continued availability of talented and qualified human resources in the nuclear field in the Asian region and to enhance the quality of the resources for sustainability of nuclear technology’. As of May 2011, the ANENT network had 17 State Members, six Collaborating Members and six potential Collaborating Members. In a similar way, many countries are fostering high-level nuclear education with positive results, and education and training at the technician level has also been fostered in many countries and organizations.

Research and development also declined during the stagnant period following the TMI-2 and Chernobyl-4 accidents, with the exception of research into severe accidents, nuclear safety research into operating nuclear power plants, and the management of radioactive waste and used fuel. Research on severe accidents was increased in the USA after the TMI-2 accident within an international context initiated by the International LOFT Project. Research projects were undertaken on all associated phe­nomena, including an investigation of the behaviour of the molten core when outside the pressure vessel. The knowledge gained has been used to improve the design of new reactors and presented at many national and international conferences, as part of the Euratom-driven FISA meetings (FISA, 2001, 2003, 2006).

Nuclear safety research into how to operate nuclear power plants is nec­essary to understand the ageing mechanism and to provide information for the longer-term operation of these plants. The NEA is the international organization of reference, publishing documents on research needs. INSAG has also expressed concerns about the importance of nuclear safety research (INSAG, 2003).

Countries with already operating nuclear power plants as well as new entrants building their first nuclear power plants should boost education at university and vocational level, and reinforce or create nuclear research centres, participating in international research projects commensurate with their needs. There will be direct and indirect benefits as a result of such efforts. Once a nuclear power plant is transferred from the reactor supplier to a national operating organization, the primary responsibility for its oper­ation rests within the licensee, under the supervision of the regulatory authority. That responsibility requires knowledge and expertise and cannot easily be transferred to contractors.

Knowledge and expertise of nuclear matters also gives indirect benefits such as an improvement of the scientific and technical development of the country, which can be applied to other industries and activities. An evalua­tion of these benefits can be made by analysing the technical and scientific developments which other former entrant countries have achieved.