Institutional Frameworks and Policy Directions for Managing Extensively Managed Woodlands in Southern Africa

Management of forest resources and other natural resources in the miombo ecore­gion is governed by several acts and policies (Kayambazinthu et al. 2003). These regulatory systems provide access to forest resources through regulations, which involve the issuance of permits (Oduol et al. 2008). Reinforcement of conservation by-laws by traditional leaders has been known in some communities (Chirwa et al. 2008a; Syampungani et al. 2009). For example, in northern Zambia, by-laws regulating bush burning and the opening and closing dates of caterpillar collection are enforced by the chiefs or the paramount chief (Holden 1991; Chidumayo and Mbata 2002). In Tanzania, some chiefs declared some forests as traditional reserves (Kowero et al. 2003). Although the government acts and local regulatory systems could in principle help to protect natural resources, the drawback is that their implementation has been ineffective due to the independent nature of their oper­ations and subtle competition between institutions (Kowero 2003). Additionally, the management style emanating from the enforcement of the legal instrument has been restrictive in nature (Kowero 2003). For example, policies governing the management of protected areas have so far stressed the non-consumptive utilization of protected resources (Munthali and Mughogho 1992). This has hampered the opportunity for the rural communities to manage and live in harmony with their natural resources. Some government acts and policies also tend to take away some functions and responsibilities of the traditional leadership, central in an African setting (Virtanen 1999); yet traditional institutions provide for sustainable forest management. If policies have to be effective, they need to be inclusive by taking all stakeholders on board and provide for an opportunity for stakeholders to meet their needs as they contribute towards sustainable forest management. Policies that provide an opportunity for residents to have access to forest products tend to encourage or enhance participatory forest resource management.

Participatory forest management using communities in proximity to the resource, seems to be the most plausible way of ensuring sustainable management, provided issues of benefits and access are clearly defined from the onset (see Arnold 2001; Ham et al. 2008). Most policy and legal framework point to the need for devolution of powers (Dewee et al. 2011). Devolution where the rights of access, use, control and ownership are completely devolved to the local communities is perceived to be more effective than where there is artificial devolution of power (see Dewee et al. 2011). Furthermore, decentralized forest management can be enhanced if the subsistence and commercial use of the resources can be integrated through sustainable resource management systems for long-term socio-economic benefits of all stakeholders. Some local examples exists where participatory approaches have been successfully implemented including the Communal Areas Management Programme for Indigenous Resources (CAMPFIRE) in Zimbabwe and the Admin­istrative Management Design (ADMADE) for Game Management Areas (GMA), in Zambia (see Van Rijsoort 2000).

On bioenergy, policies conducive for promotion of small — scale, more sustainable technologies such as alternative (clean) energy development and agroforestry are lacking (see Ambali et al. 2011). Programs and policies which take into account the complex economic forces that influence energy production and consumption are urgently needed. It is therefore important that forestry and energy policies are complementary in order to foster the achievement of maximum benefits which wood can offer. Additionally, the promotion of more efficient energy use and the development of more modern production systems such as the use of wood for electricity production may contribute towards sustainable forest management.

1.3 Conclusions

The Zambezian phytoregion is a significant biome accounting for a large proportion of the African land masses. The Woodlands/forests of this region are widely exploited for charcoal production, slash and burn agriculture and timber. It is a source of livelihood for the majority of the rural poor of Southern Africa. Consequently, this has had implications on the vegetation cover in the region.

However, various studies have demonstrated that most of the woodland species of the region are capable of recovering once the disturbances arising from utilization for charcoal production, slash and burn agriculture ceases. This is because these species have both vertically and horizontally extensive root systems which facilitate recuperation after cutting. Additionally, a large number of seedlings and or saplings tend to be present at the time of clearing. The recovery rate and productive potential of the woodlands vary across the region. Limited data that indicates the productivity of the Southern African woodlands is influenced by several factors among which are (i) inherent climatic and edaphic factors; (ii) the resultant land use; (iii) the influences of fire; and (iv) standard assessment methods for both above and below ground biomass. The variation in productivity from one woodland system to another implies that management systems need to be developed specific to each woodland system if woody biomass is to be increased. This would also require that the influence of several factors on the productivity of the woodland systems is well understood. Furthermore efforts to develop capacity for the Forest Service or other government bodies responsible for forest management must be undertaken.

There is also need to formulate policies and legal framework that are inclusive. Currently, the local regulatory and the government regulatory systems do not work closely as the government system is considered to be superior over the local system (traditional system). There is need to understand how best the factors that make the two regulatory system operate independently. Formulation of policies conducive for promotion of small scale sustainable technologies such as alternative (clean) energy production and Agroforestry need to be encouraged.