Category Archives: BIOMASS NOW — CULTIVATION AND UTILIZATION

Characteristics of P. curdlanolyticus B-6 multienzyme complex

During growth of P. curdlanolyticus B-6 on Berg’s mineral salt medium containing 0.5% xylan as carbon sources, the protein concentration in the medium was low up to the late stationary growth phase. CMCase and xylanase activities could be detected in the culture medium after the late exponential phase (Pason et al., 2006b). At the declining growth phase, the extracellular xylanase and CMCase rapidly increased due to the release of enzymes from the cell surfaces into the culture medium. These phenomena were different from the growth patterns of other aerobic bacteria, which grew and produced extracellular enzymes into culture supernatant immediately, but similar to those of the anaerobic bacteria which produced multienzyme complexes (cellulosomes) around the cell surfaces and adhered to these substrates and secreted into culture supernatant later (Bayer & Lamed, 1986; Lamed & Bayer, 1988). The observation of cell surfaces at the late exponential growth phase by scanning electron microscopy (SEM) revealed that the cells adhered to xylan (Fig. 5A), similar to the cells of the cellulosome producing anaerobic bacterium, C. thermocellum, which is a cell associated entity that mediates the adhesion of the bacterium to cellulose (Lamed et al., 1987; Mayer et al., 1987), whereas the surface of the cells of strain B-6 at the late stationary growth phase lacked such structures because the multienzyme complex was released into the medium from the cell surfaces (Fig. 5B). In addition, the pattern of multienzyme complex in the culture medium at the late stationary growth phase was determined. Native-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (native-PAGE) exhibited a high molecular weight band at the top of the gel (Fig. 6, lane 1). This protein band was dissociated into major and minor components through treatment by boiling in sodium dodecyl sulphate (SDS) solution, showing at least 18 proteins with molecular masses in the range of 29 to 280 kDa (Fig. 6, lane 2). Among those protein bands, at least 15 bands showed xylanase activities (Fig. 6, lane 3) and at least 9 bands showed CMCase activities (Fig. 6, lane 4) on zymograms. These multiple cellulases and xylanases are assembled into the high molecular weight complexes and released from the cell surfaces into medium at the late stationary growth phase. In C. thermocellum, the cellulosome consisted of many different types of glycosyl hydrolases, including cellulases, hemicellulases, and carbohydrate esterases, which served to promote their synergistic action (Lamed et al., 1983). These evidences confirm that the strain B-6 can produce xylanolytic-cellulolytic enzyme system that exists as multienzyme complex under aerobic conditions.

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Figure 5. SEM of the cell surfaces of P. curdlanolyticus B-6 harvested at the late exponential growth phase showing adhesion of cell to xylan (A) and the cell harvested at the late stationary growth phase showing no adhesion of cell to xylan (B).

Chemical and material analysis

The dissolution of non-PHA cell mass was monitored by measuring the characteristic absorption of amino acid residues at 280 nm with a UV/VIS spectrophotometer (Beckman Coulter DU530, Fullerton, CA). The concentration of proteins that can be stained in Bradford assay was measured with the spectrophotometer after protein-dye binding [23]. The content of PHB in original cell mass, in sequential treatments, and final product were determined via methanolysis of the biopolyester in methanol (3 wt% sulfuric acid) at 100 oC for 8-10 hours [24]. The 3-hydroxybutyric methyl ester was hydrolyzed into 3-hydroxybutyric acid when the solution pH was raised to 11 with a 10N NaOH solution. The liquid samples were analyzed using an HPLC equipped with a UV detector (Shimadzu, Japan) and an organic acid column (OA-1000, Alltech, Deerfield, IL). The column was maintained at 65 oC and eluted with a water-sulfuric acid solution (pH 2) at 0.8 mL/min. The monomeric acid and crotonic acid, a trace byproduct formed in methanolysis, were detected at 210 nm. For data quality control, the biopolyester was also extracted from the freeze-dried cell mass in hot chloroform followed by precipitation with methanol [21]. The PHB content was calculated from the purified PHB and compared with the results of HPLC analysis.

The purified PHB and non-PHB cell mass were examined with a Nicolet Avatar 370 FTIR spectrometer (Thermo Electron Co., Madison, WI). The solids were pressed on a germanium crystal window of micro-horizontal attenuated total reflectance (ATR) for measurement of single-reflection and absorption of infrared radiation by the specimens. The thermal properties of PHB powder were examined with a differential scanning calorimeter (DSC). A Modulated 2920 instrument (TA Instruments, New Castle, DE) equipped with a refrigerated cooling system was run in heat-cool-heat mode at a rate of 5 oC/min under nitrogen. The selected temperature range was 30oC — 210 oC with sample weights of 4.5 — 5.5 mgs. Images of cell and PHB granules were obtained with an energy­filtering transmission electron microscopy (120 kV LEO 912, Carl Zeiss SMT Inc. MA). The instrument has an in-column electron energy loss spectrometer, allowing analysis of light element in thin sections.

Ecological and environmental benefits of biofuel crops

Development of perennial biofuel crops may provide long-term sustainability on these lands by reducing soil erosion, increasing soil organic matter, reducing greenhouse gases and enhancing carbon sequestration [35]. Studies have shown that perennial crops provided many ecological and environmental benefits. Switchgrass and other warm season grasses can be used to control soil erosion, reduce runoff losses of soil nutrients, improve water quality (facilitate the breakdown or removal of soil contaminants), diversify wild life habitats and so on [17, 44]. Roth et al. (2005) [78] showed that proper managing switchgrass harvest can significantly increase grassland birds diversity. More importantly, perennial crops such as switchgrass have been shown to increase carbon sequestration and improve soil quality [9].

The environmental benefits for producing biofuel crops include high energy efficiency and reducing greenhouse gas (GHG) emission. Schmer et al. (2008) [8] evaluated the net energy efficiency and economic feasibility of switchgrass and similar crops in North and Central Great Plains. Switchgrass produced 540% more renewable than nonrenewable energy consumed. Switchgrass monocultures managed for high yield produced 93% more biomass yield and an equivalent estimated NEY than previous estimates from human-made prairies that received low agricultural inputs. Estimated average GHG emissions from cellulosic ethanol derived from switchgrass were 94% lower than estimated GHG from gasoline.

Hauling contract

The rack system envisions that the hauling contractor will invest in industrial equipment needed for year-round operation. Because the hauling contractor is hauling year-round, they can a) afford to invest in higher capacity industrial-grade equipment designed for up to 5,000 hour/year (or more) operation, and b) their labor force will develop expertise at the operations, and the Mg handled per unit of equipment investment will be a maximum. These two factors together create the potential to minimize hauling cost ($/Mg).

3.4.1. Storage

The logistics system has three storage features. Round bale packages act as self-storage and protect the biomass. Rounded top sheds water, so the round bale can be left in the field for a short time before in-field hauling. This provides the advantage of uncoupling the harvest and in-field hauling operations, and thus provides an opportunity for improving the cost efficiency of both operations. The farmgate contract holder has the opportunity to bale when the weather is right and haul later.

The second storage features are the SSLs. These locations provide the needed transition between in-field hauling and highway hauling. The SSLs will be located so that the Mg-km parameter for each SSL will be not more than 4 km. This means that, averaged across all Mgs stored at that SSL, each Mg will be hauled less than 4 km from the production field to the SSL. This constraint gives the producer an upper bound for calculating in-field hauling cost and all farmgate contractors are treated the same relative to in-field hauling cost.

The third storage feature is the inventory in at-plant storage, which provides the needed feedstock buffer at the plant. Those building a bioenergy plant would like to operate with just-in-time (JIT) delivery of feedstock as this gives them the lowest cost for receiving facility operation. If JIT is not possible, they want the smallest at-plant inventory for cost effective operation. There is obviously a trade-off in the logistics system design between the higher cost to purchase JIT delivery, and the cost of at-plant storage operations.

Analysis of the organic removal effect of BAC and BCF

The respective removal effect of BAC filter bed and BCF filter bed on DOC and BDOC after ozonation is shown respectively in Fig. 29 and Fig. 30. Only a few DOC, which accounts for 4% of raw water is removed by ozonation. For calculation, the removal of DOC and BDOC shown in Fig. 29 and Fig. 30 is in relative terms with ozonation. Analysis of the statistics of Fig. 29 and Fig. 30 is shown in Table 5, in which NBDOC stands for non­biodegradable dissolved organic carbon. As shown in Table 5, the removal effect of BAC on DOC is mainly focused on removing BDOC, among which removal of BDOC accounts for 85% of the degradation DOC, while for BCF filter bed, this proportion can be as high as 98%.

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ozonation effluent efficiencies

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ozonation effluent efficiencies

Figure 30. Results of DOC and BDOC removal in BCF filter

Column

DOC removal

BDOC removal

BDOC/DOC (%)

NBDOC

BDOC

BAC

1.685

0.234

1.451

85

BCF

1.525

0.03

1.495

98

Table 5. Calculation results of DOC and BDOC removal in BAC and BCF filter 3.3.3.3. Quantitative analysis of Оз-BAC adsorption and biodegradation

According to the calculation method in Fig. 24, and considering the analysis of BAC, BCF biological activity and their effects on removing organics, Table 6 shows quantitative calculation results of organic matter removal by adsorption and biodegradation in BAC filter. To intuitively understand how O3-BAC biodegradation and adsorption work, Fig. 31 along with the analysis of Table 6 and Fig. 29, shows a simplified model of O3-BAC removes organics.

Column

DOC removal

BDOC removal

NBDOC

BDOC

Adsorption

0.595

0.234

0.361

Biodegradation

1.09

0

1.09

Total

1.685

0.234

1.451

Table 6. Calculation results of organic matter removal by adsorption and biodegradation in BAC filter

As shown in Fig. 31, it is conducted by the synergy effect of activated carbon adsorption and biodegradation of O3-BAC. Under the system research conditions, BAC bed biodegradation is dominant which accounts for 65% removal of total organics, furthermore, this 65% is mainly organics of BDOC, which indicates that the main organics removed by biodegradation is readily degradable dissolved organics, which can be concluded that biodegradation has a remarkable selectivity. In contrast, activated carbon adsorption plays a supporting role in the system, while via adsorption the quantity of removed difficult biodegradable material is roughly similar to the quantity of the readily one[60].

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Figure 31. Illustration of organic matter removal by BAC filter after ozonation

 

Influence of anaerobic digested slurry on the soil microbiota

The changes that occur in the parent waste during the process of anaerobic digestion largely depend on the dynamics of the abovementioned microbial groups, ultimately influencing the quality of the final products, i. e. biogas and anaerobic digested slurry. As mentioned before, anaerobic slurries are rich in partially stable organic carbon and can be used as organic amendments for crop production. However so far, many environmental issues relevant when these co-products are applied to agricultural land still have to be studied, especially those related to the impact of the anaerobic digested slurry on the soil microbiota. In a recent work, Walsh et al. [120] observed that its application affected the fungal and bacterial growth in a very similar way to the application of mineral fertilizers in a 16- week greenhouse experiment. They found a pronounced shift towards a bacterial dominated microbial decomposer community, and such effects were consistent in different soils and different crop types. They conclude that mineral fertiliser could be thus exchanged for anaerobic digested slurry with limited impact on the actively growing soil microbial community, which is of great importance in the regulation of soil processes and consequently in soil fertility and crop yield. Recently, Masse et al. [4] gave an overview of the agronomic value of anaerobic digestion treated manures. In line with this, previous findings showed that the AD of animal slurries improved their fertilizer value [3], thereby leading to an increased forage yield and N uptake relative to raw liquid swine manure and mineral fertilizers [121]. Bougnom et al. [122] found a 20% increase in grass yield compared to conventional manure. Liedl et al. [123] also found that digested poultry litter resulted in similar or superior grass and vegetable yields versus N fertilizers. Therefore, all of the above provides evidence that the anaerobic digested slurry acts similarly to mineral fertiliser and should be considered as such in its application to land. Additionally, the enrichment of mineral fractions of N and P during digestion ultimately results in a higher concentration of plant-available nutrients compared with undigested manure and a subsequently elevated plant growth promotion ability, suggested to be similar to mineral fertilisers [4,123]. These latter authors also found that AD reduced swine manure total and volatile solid concentrations by up to 80% resulting in improved manure homogeneity and lowered viscosity allowing more uniform land application [4]. Nevertheless, the higher levels of mineral N found in the slurry, mainly ammonia, may also lead to an increase in the level of phytotoxicity of the slurry, thereby affecting seed germination and plant growth after land — spreading of this co-product into soils [124]. The presence of other phytotoxic substances, such as volatile fatty acids (i. e., acetic, propionic and butyric acids), as well as the high content of soluble salts may contribute to the slurry phytotoxicity [125]. Furthermore, Goberna et al. [126] found that amending soils with slurry resulted in greater nitrate losses during the first 30 d of a 100 d incubation period in 20 cm-depth lysimeters. In fact, around 23 and 45% of the total N contained in the soil (natural + added) was lost from soils amended with cattle manure and anaerobic slurry, respectively. Other authors also observed that N leaching was, along with NH3 volatilisation, one of the most important sources of N leakage to the environment in a field-scale experiment, after having quantified the amount of mineral N at 1.7 m depth from grass cultivated plots amended with anaerobic digested slurry and mineral fertiliser [127]. Thus, the use of this co­product as an organic amendment should accurately match crop N demand because if not taken by the plants, nitrates could be drained to surface waters, leached to ground waters or denitrified into gaseous forms and emitted to the atmosphere.

The presence of pathogenic bacteria in agricultural amendments also represents a potential threat and their screening is thus of great importance mainly in those produced from animal manures, as it has been shown that such pathogenic organisms constitute a common fraction of the microbial community in manure [128]. In fact, it has been shown that some pathogenic bacteria can survive the process of anaerobic digestion and persist in the slurry, as previously reported by [129]. In line with this, those microorganisms with a spore­forming capacity such as Clostridium and Bacillus species, which are commonly found in the intestinal flora of most warm-blooded animals and can harbor some highly pathogenic members for animals and humans [12,129], cannot be reduced during the process [130]. Accordingly, Olsen and Larsen [131] observed that the spores of Clostridium perfringens were not inactivated in either mesophilic or thermophilic biogas digesters. Similar results were observed by other authors [132-133] in a reactor operating under mesophilic and thermophilic conditions, respectively. It is acknowledged that bacterial spores can survive in extreme conditions and germinate after long periods, when the conditions become more favourable [131]. The non-hygienic conditions of the storage/transporting tanks can also favour pathogen regrowth [134]. The composition of the substrate fed into the reactor, as well as the reactor conditions such as pH, digestion temperature, slurry hydraulic retention time, ammonium concentration, volatile fatty acids content and nutrient supply are expected to have a significant influence on the sanitation of the end-product [130]. This indicates that there exists a potential risk of spreading potentially pathogenic microbes after the application of anaerobic slurries into soil. Indeed, Crane and Moore [135] stated that amending soils with raw and treated manures, even with a low pathogenic load, still posed a threat for the environment because a period of regrowth of some pathogens including Escherichia coli, enterococci, faecal streptococci and Salmonella enterica have been shown after manure deposition to soil [136]. Goberna et al. [126] also found that the levels of Listeria in soils amended with either cattle manure or anaerobic slurry were significantly higher than those in the control treatment after having been incubated for a month. They observed, however, that the cultivable forms of Listeria in the studied soils could correspond to L. innocua instead of L. monocytogenes, as shown by the polymerase chain reaction assays. However, as recently summarised by [137], anaerobic digestion generally reduces the pathogen risk when compared to untreated substrates.

In a current study, we evaluated, at a microcosm level, the short and long-term effects of the anaerobic digested slurry on soil chemical and microbiological properties compared to its ingestate (i. e., raw manure) and the two widely-recognized products, compost and vermicompost. All of the organic substrates were mixed with soil by turning at a rate of 40 mg N kg-1 soil (dry weight). A control treatment that consisted of soil without the addition of any organic amendment was also included. A total of 45 experimental units (5 amendment levels x 3 incubation times x 3 replicates) were set-up in the present study. After an equilibration period of 4 days at 4 °C, 15 columns were dismantled and the sample was collected to analyze (incubation time 0 days). The remaining thirty columns were then maintained in a room at 22 °C, which is the average temperature of the hottest and wettest month in this area and the most suitable for the survival of pathogens. These columns were destructively sampled after 15 and 60 d incubation corresponding to short and medium — term effects. The survival of selected pathogens was then determined according to standard protocols [138-140] (ISO 16649-2, 2001 for Escherichia coli; ISO 4832, 1991 for faecal coliforms; and ISO 7937, 2004 for Clostridium perfringens) in all the organic materials and amended soils.

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Figure 5. Abundance of Escherichia coli and faecal coliforms in the original materials (manure (M), compost (C), vermicompost (Vc) and anaerobic digested slurry (AS)) and in the unamended and amended soils at the three incubation times (0, 15 and 60 days). Values are means ± SE.

Briefly, culturable forms of both faecal coliforms and E. coli were isolated from all the initial materials, although their levels were greatly lower in compost relative to the other substrates (Figure 5). This is not surprising taking into account that the composting process, unlike vermicomposting, involved a four-day thermophilic phase, during which the process reached a temperature of 70 °C. Those pathogens were also detected in the anaerobic digested slurry after 40 days of anaerobic digestion (Figure 5). This fact suggests that feeding the reactor with four to five m3 cattle manure d-1 could have provided enough nutrients to maintain a large population of the studied pathogens. Indeed, nutrient availability is one of the major factors influencing pathogen survival in biogas digesters, as previously reported by [130]. Once applied to soils, E. coli CFUs were detected in manure — amended soils at the start of the experiment and after incubation for 15 d (Figure 5A); whilst faecal coliforms CFUs were recorded in both manure and slurry-amended soils in the short­term, even though at lower values in comparison with the start of incubation (Figure 5B).

However, the spore-forming C. perfringens persisted in all the amended soils (Figure 6), which supports the fact that this bacterium has more resistance to environmental stresses and the capacity to outcompete the native soil microbiota. After 60 d CFU of C. perfringens were much closer to those in the control in the slurry-amended soils (Figure 6), which suggests that this time period could be considered as a safe delay between land-spreading the product into soil and crop harvesting with respect to its pathogenic load.

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Figure 6. Abundance of Clostridium perfringens in the original materials (manure (M), compost (C), vermicompost (Vc) and anaerobic digested slurry (AS)) and in the unamended and amended soils at the three incubation times (0, 15 and 60 days). Values are means ± SE.

Enzymatic hydrolysis

Differently from acid hydrolysis, biodegradation of sugarcane bagasse by cellulolytic enzymes can be performed at much lower temperatures (around 50°C or even lower). Moreover conversion of cellulose and hemicellulose polymers into their constituent sugars is very specific and toxic degradation products are unlikely to be formed. However, a pretreatment step is required for enzymatic hydrolysis, since the native cellulose structure is well protected by the matrix compound of hemicellulose and lignin [4].

Cellulase is the general term for the enzymatic complex able to degrade cellulose into glucose molecules. The mechanism action accepted for hydrolysis of cellulose are based on synergistic activity between endoglucanase (EC 3.2.1.4), exoglucanase (or cellobiohydrolase (EC 3.2.1.91)), and p-glucosidase (EC 3.2.1.21). The first enzyme cleaves the bounds p-1,4- glucosidic of cellulose chains to produce shorter cello-dextrins. Exoglucanase release cellobiose or glucose from cellulose and cello-dextrin chains and, finally p-glucosidases hydrolyze cellobiose to glucose. The intramolecular p-1,4-glucosidic linkages are cleaved by endoglucanases randomly. Endoglucanases and exoglucanases have different modes of action. While endoglucanase hydrolyze intramolecular cleavages, exoglucanases hydrolyze long chains from the ends. More specifically, exoglucanases or cellobiohydrolases have action on the reducing (CBH I) and non-reducing (CBH II) cellulose chain ends to liberate glucose and cellobiose. These enzymes acts on insoluble cellulose, then their activity are often measured using microcrystalline cellulose. Lastly, p-glucosidases or cellobioase hydrolyze cellobiose to glucose. They are important to the process of hydrolysis because they removed cellobiose to the aqueous phase that is an inhibitor to the action of endoglucanases and exoglucanases [10].

The multi-complex enzymatic cocktail known as cellulase and hemicellulase can be produced by a variety of saprophytic microorganisms. Trichoderma and Aspergillus are the genera most used to produce cellulases. Among them, one of the most productive of biomass degrading enzymes is the filamentous fungus Trichoderma reesei. It cellulolytic arsenal is composed by a mixture of endoglucanases and exoglucanases that act synergistically to break down cellulose to cellobiose. Two p-glucosidases have been identified that are implicated in hydrolyzing cellobiose to glucose. An additional protein, swollenin, has been described that disrupts crystalline cellulose structures, presumably making polysaccharides more accessible to hydrolysis. The four most abundant components of T. reesei cellulase together constitute more than 50% of the protein produced by the cell under inducing conditions [9, 15]. Cellulases are essential for the biorefinery concept. In order to reduce the costs and increase production of commercial enzymes, the use of cheaper raw materials as substrate for enzyme production and focus on a product with a high stability and specific activity are mandatory. Apart from bioethanol, there are several applications to these enzymes, such as in textile, detergent, food, and in the pulp and paper industries.

Short rotation woody crops (SRWC) — A model of agriculture in forestry business

The major challenges of shifting forest management goals from traditional forestry to biomass production are sustainability issues, relatively low value of the product in comparison to quality logs and expensive harvesting, being competitive only at a high degree of mechanization in developed nations. As a consequence, rotation periods were shortened and fast growing species are preferred in order to produce woody biomass in an agriculture-like manner. Since the increment is highest at the beginning of stand development and subsequently decreases, only the maximum increment is utilized, ensuring maximum biomass production capacities at a given site. Short-rotation woody crops (SRWC) are hence established, in Europe typically with fast growing willow (Salix) or poplar (Populus) species. However, fast growing hardwood Quercus species are also considered for short rotation [34]. SRWC originated in ancient times, when people coppiced woodlands in order to obtain raw materials, e. g. fuel wood for cooking or heating purposes, but most of the research has been carried out and application of the results has been achieved in the last 50 years [35]. The basic principles of SRWC therefore originate in a coppice land management system, which will be described below. Planting is optimized for maximum biomass production (increment) while minimizing threats of disease and facilitating highly mechanized harvest technologies. Typical rotation periods are between 1 and 15 years [35], and rotations of Salix are shorter (< 5 years) than those of Populus and Quercus. Biomass from short rotations extracts significant amounts of soil nutrients, since a higher share of nutrient rich compartments (bark and thin branches) is extracted from the system. In combination with the short rotation cycles, nutrient extraction rates are larger as compared to conventional forestry. This implies the need of fertilization in most cases and concerns, e. g. about N leaching into groundwater bodies are discussed. However, Aronsson et al.[36] showed that high rates of N fertilization do not necessarily prime leaching, even on sandy soils (Eutric Arenosol) if the demand for N is high. C sequestration in the soil is also primarily controlled by N fertilization and the response of the vegetation [37]. The authors found increasing biomass production and C sequestration in a hybrid poplar plantation following N fertilization. On the other hand, it was argued that short rotations eventually result in the loss of the mineralization phase, thus preventing self-regeneration of the forest ecosystem [38]. Following their argument, a rotation cycle should be long enough to permit the return of autotrophic respiration and high rates of mineralization. In terms of C sequestration potential, it ultimately depends on the land use prior to SRWC if and to what extent additional C is accumulated. Especially sites that were formerly used for agricultural purposes and where organic carbon was depleted are prone to additional sequestration after land conversion [19, 20]. They pointed out that especially, but not only, non-woody Miscanthus plantations, can substantially sequester C with relative high amounts of litter. In a global context, SRWC may interfere with agricultural production if it continues to be a focus and if plantation areas increase since most plantations are not the result of forestland conversion, but rather farmland conversion. One of the reasons for this interference is the varying legal definition of SRWC across nations. While SWRC is considered forest in some countries, it is treated as an agricultural crop in other nations, making comparisons and predictions across borders difficult.

Field capacity and efficiency of biomass harvest machines

The equipment used for baling and in-field hauling is a critical issue to the farm owners. More efficient harvest systems coupled with well-matched harvesting technologies specific to farm size and crop yield can minimize costs. The importance of understanding the linkage between various unit operations in the logistics chain was illustrated [6,7]. Similarly, researchers have quantified the handling and storage costs for large square bales at a bioenergy plant [8]. However, in both of these evaluations the details of field operations and field capacities of machines involved in the field harvesting and handling were not available

[9] . Instead, costs of bales at the farm gate were used to analyze bioenergy production costs. To maximize the field efficiency of field machine systems, it is essential for farm managers to know the field capacity of each machine involved in harvesting. In addition, quantitatively understanding the capacity of biomass harvest machines is essential to assess daily production and supply rate for a biorefinery or a storage facility.

The field efficiency of rectangular balers can be determined by calculating the theoretical material capacity of the baler and actual field capacity [10]. Calculation of material capacity can be demonstrated using a large rectangular baler as an example. The end dimensions of the large bales were 1.20 m * 0.90 m; bale length was 2.44 m. The depth and width of the chamber were 0.9 m and 1.2 m, respectively. Plunger speed was 42 strokes per minute. Measured bale density was 146 kg/m3, and the thickness of each compressed slice in bale was 0.07 m. Thus, calculated theoretical bale capacity using equation 11.60 in [10] is 27.83 Mg/h. The plunger load could be set higher and produce higher density bales.

The theoretical capacity was obtained from a baler manufacturer under ideal conditions. Ideal conditions exist when a baling operation has [11]:

1. Long straight windrows

2. Windrows prepared with consistent and recommended density (mass/length)

3. Properly adjusted and functioning baler

4. Experienced operator

Actual field capacity of a baler will be impacted by the size and shape of the field, crop type, yield and moisture content of the crop at harvest, and windrow preparation. Typical field efficiencies and travel speeds can be found from ASAE Standards D497 [12]. Cundiff et al.

[11] analyzed the field baler capacity and considered the effect of field size on baler field capacity. They found that the field capacities of round and large rectangular balers were 8.5 Mg/h and 14.4 Mg/h, respectively.

Another example of testing the baling capacity of a large rectangular would be the field tests conducted on wheat straw and switchgrass fields [13,14]. Results showed that actual field capacity of a large rectangular baler was between 11 and 13 Mg/h. This indicates that the field capacity of a large rectangular baler could be 50% or less compared to its theoretical capacity.

Size Reduction

1. Unroller-chopper cost: $5.76/dry ton.

2. Rack cost: all costs associated with the ownership and maintenance of the racks.

3. Loading cost: all costs associated with the loading of bales into racks. These costs are referred to as "SSL operation costs".

4. Truck cost: all costs associated with the ownership and operation of the trucks.

5. Receiving Facility cost: all costs associated with the unloading of racks from trucks, placement of racks onto conveyor (or placement in at-plant storage), conveyor operation, operation of at-plant storage, and removal of racks from at-plant storage and placement on trucks for return to SSL.

6. Size reduction: all costs associated with the unloading of bales from the rack, operation of conveyor for single file bales delivered to size reduction machine, and operation of machine for initial size reduction.

Truck cost is 34% of the total cost, SSL operations are 20%, Receiving Facility operations are 14%, size reduction is 24%, and the racks are 8%. It is clear why the Rack System Concept was organized to maximize truck productivity; truck cost is the largest cost component. Truck cost plus SSL operations are $12.77/dry ton, or 54% of total cost. The Receiving Facility cost is $3.37/dry ton, only 14% of total cost. As with all other multi-bale handling system concepts, the Rack System provides an opportunity for minimizing cost between the plant gate and the size reduction unit operation.

The total cost shown in Table 2 does not include the farmgate contract cost (production, harvesting, in-field transport, storage in SSL, and profit to producer). The farmgate contract cost can be estimated from local data for production, harvest, and ambient storage of round bales of hay. In the Southeast the key issue relative to the hay cost comparison is the difference in yield; switchgrass will yield about 9 Mg/ha as compared to traditional hay species that yield about 4.5 Mg/ha.

Operation

Cost ($/dry ton)*

Racks

1.80

1 oading at SSI.

Telehandler

3.66

Extra Drop-deck Trailers

0.98

Truck cost

8.13

Unloading at plant

Workhorse forklift

1.93

Backup forklift

1.02

At-plant storage (Gravel lot with lighting)

0.13

Operation

Cost ($/dry ton)*

Conveyor into plant

0.28

Unroller-chopper (Initial size reduction)

5.76

Total

$23.69

* $1/dry ton = $1.103/Mg DM

Table 2. Total cost for hauling, receiving facility operations, and — side-load option, 24-h hauling.

size reduction for rack system exam

4. Conclusions

The key decision points for the design of a logistics system for a bioenergy plant operating

24/7 year-round are summarized as follows.

1. A complete logistics system is defined as one that begins with the biomass standing in the field and ends with a stream of size-reduced material entering a bioenergy plant for 24/7 operation. Optimizing one unit operation in isolation may increase the cost of an "upstream" or "downstream" operation such that total delivered cost is increased.

2. Most feedstock is harvested only part of the year, thus storage is a part of the logistics system. A cost effective logistics system provides for efficient flow of material in and out of storage.

3. Just-in-time (JIT) delivery of feedstock provides for a minimum at-plant storage cost. Since JIT delivery is not practical for typical biomass logistics systems, there is always a cost trade-off between the size of at-plant storage and the other design constraints needed to insure a continuous feedstock supply. Knowledge of quantities of biomass in Satellite Storage Locations (SSLs) provides the Feedstock Manager at a bioenergy plant an opportunity to minimize the at-plant storage cost.

4. Farmgate contracts that require a summer-early fall harvest must compensate for the removal of nutrients, and contracts that require a winter harvest must compensate for loss of yield incurred by the delayed harvest.

5. Assigning different unit operations to different entities in the business plan can lower average delivered cost. For example, it is more efficient to pool all farmgate activities into a farmgate contract and have a hauling contractor handle all load-haul activities. This division is defined as a division between "agricultural" and "industrial" operations. The key benefit achieved is in the capitalization of the equipment. Load — haul contractors can afford to invest in industrial-grade, high-capacity equipment designed for year-round operation as compared to farmgate contractors who will use their equipment 400 hours (or less) per year.

6. Uncoupling of the unit operations in the logistics chain can provide an advantage.

a. In the agricultural operations, baling uncouples the harvesting and in-field hauling operations. When the harvesting operation is not constrained by in-field hauling— both unit operations can proceed at maximum productivity.

b. In the industrial operations, it is important to uncouple truck loading from hauling. Maximum loads-per-day-per-truck are achieved when the loading crew never has to wait for a truck to arrive and the truck never has to wait to be loaded.

7. Truck cost is the largest component of total cost in most logistics systems, thus it is essential to maximize truck productivity (Mg hauled per unit time) by increasing both Mg-per-load and loads-per-day. A 10-min load time and a 10-min unload time is a desired goal for design of most logistic systems.

8. Multi-bale handling units are in need to solve the rapid loading/unloading challenge.

9. Twenty-four-hour hauling can minimize truck cost ($/Mg). The challenge is to design a logistics system with a practical procedure for loading trucks at night at a remote location.

10. The design of the Receiving Facility, because of the need to unload trucks quickly, is critical in the design of a complete logistics system. Typically, this design specifies that each load have the same configuration, and requires a delivery schedule where approximately the same number of loads is received each workday.

11. The most cost-effective logistics system will be structured such that information technologies (GPS, bar codes, entry of data over cell phone network) and optimization routines developed for other logistics systems can be used to optimize asset utilization in real time.