» Preheating of ventilation air in metallic roof, air solar collector (Ran nilla) with 13 ms PV modules covering ventilation and lighting demand from solar energy.

* Wooden airtight housing construction with papergranulate-insulation and no cold bridges. ( U-value; 0.15 — 0.18 Wlnf’C)

• Low-energy windows. Veluxf Velfac.

■ A "house-without-heating system" concept

Developed by: Cenergia, Nielsen&Rubow architects and Sorry Henriksen

FIGURE 4.

SHAPE * MERGEFORMAT

FIGURE 6. HERE IS SHOWN CONTENT AND THE EXTRA INVESTMENT COSTS FOR IMPROVED QUALITIES A AND B FOR HOUSING PROJECTS IN DENMARK. WHEN THE NEW DEMANDS IN RELATION TO THE EU ENERGY PERFORMANCE DIRECTIVE FOR BUILDINGS IS INTRODUCED IN 2006, THE EXTRA COSTS RELATED TO THIS WILL NOT BE VERY HIGH.

Additional investment

The calculated example for Denmark of a grade A building shows that an additional investment per dwelling is estimated at DKK 95.500,- shared out on DKK 44.500,- on heating measures, DKK 14.500,- on water measures, DKK 14.000,- on electrical measures, DKK 17.500,- on other measures covering health and environment, and finally DKK 5.000,- to secure the project quality. This equals DKK 995,-/m2 calculating with dwellings of 96 m2. If we assume a standard investment of DKK 10.000,-/m2 an additional investment of 9,95% is necessary as compared to a standard building.(and only 5.7% in extra costs for B)). When the new building regulations based on the EU-Energy Performance Directive for Buildings are in operation by January 2006 these extra costs will be reduced to 6.8% and 2.8% respectively.

For this additional investment a building with a considerable effort on improving of health and environment is obtained. For such a building a clear reduction of the consumption of heat, water and electricity can be expected.

Heating consumption reduced by 61% from 92 kWh/irF/year to 36 kWh/irF/year. (A) and (B): 34%, reduced to 61 kWh/mF year.

Water consumption reduced by 52% from 45 m3/person/year to 22 m3/person/year. And (B): 20%, reduced to 35 mF/persons, year.

Electricity-consumption reduced by 30% from 1300 kWh/person/year to 915 kWh/person/year. And (B): 15%, reduced to 1100 kWh person/year

This totals a CO2 reduction of 45% for (A) and 24% for (B).

E. Kazarian, Professor at State Engineering University of Armenia, Yerevan:
erkazarian@yahoo. com

Nader Ali. PhD candidate at State Engineering University of Armenia, Yerevan

Practical implementation and successful exploitation of alternative energy sources in Armenia closely related to questions of protection of environment and to increase of life level of the population. Disposal of urban and rural wastes becomes an acute problem for cities and villages of the country. Thus, importance of development of effective and low — cost wastes processing technologies becomes obvious. Ways to increase productivity of small biogas installations are reviewed in the paper.

It is well known that one of the principal stages of organic wastes processing is their oxidation and fermentation. For this stage, the use of electric field is proposed along with heating to induce motion of water component of the disperse mass of the organic wastes in the necessary direction, the proposal is based on the phenomenon of electric osmosis.

Organic wastes were approximated as a system of capillaries filled with solution; the biomass was viewed as a disperse system consisting of solid, liquid and gaseous phases. Upon application of electric filed motion of liquid phase was observed. The direction of the motion depended on polarity of the electrodes. The main parameters were intensity of electric field E, shapes dimensions of the electrodes as well as.

Distance between them. Biogas installation consists of tank with biomass, a measuring and controlling system and power source.

The measuring and controlling system switches on and off the power source, measure the gas temperature, humidity and pressure in various spots of the tank, determines average (per volume) temperature in the tank, changes speed and direction of the liquid’s motion. For simulation of the installation, conductivity of interelectrode space was selected as determining criterion for selection of the speed of motion and fermentation of biomass. The conductivity was represented as (Fig.1)

G = 2prL/ln(R /r) (1)

r — Radius of electrode.

R — Radius of electrode from the wall of

reactor. (The distance between electrode ’axes’ and the wall).

One of which was installed on the tank’s axes while the layer of metal covering the walls of the tank represented the other, L is the length of an internal electrodes.

The length of electrodes and the shape of the internal one were selected, so that the speed of motion of the biomass was the same everywhere in the tank. The density of current on the electrodes was selected according to condition:

r/R = JR/Jr (2)

JR, Jr — a current density of electrodes.

The selected values satisfied to principal conditions, namely necessary speed of the electric osmosis and prevention of excessive heat pollution.

Obtained results made it possible to advise using the installation in small farms.

The large volume of organic wastes from agricultural industry has as a reusable source of organic biomass tremendous energy potential. Availability of biomass alone does not, however ensure a solution to the problem of converting the biomass into an energy source.

It is necessary to have methods both for waste handling and salvaging of a biomass to achieve in optimal conditions biogas for consequent usage to supply electrical power as well as high quality fertilizers.

The system to be described aims to produce biogas from a biomass with out waste products while maintaining ecological clean waste handing, producing gaseous combustible biogas to be converted to electrical and thermal energy and ecological clean organic fertilizers.

For the acceleration intensification and heightening of the fermentation process of a biomass in a Bioreactor the phenomenon of electro-osmosis will be utilized as is exhibited during electrolysis, a monitoring system for regulation of the process of stirring and heating of a biomass for this dynamic behavior was especially designed for this purpose (Fig2):

(1-bioreactor, 2-worm pipe with ardent water, 3-solar header — water heater, 4-power source — solar photo transducers, 5-automatic management system and regulations, 6 and 7 electrodes).

The electro-osmosis is constructed with of the help electrodes (6 &7), biomass, installed in a reactor.

The stoichiometry of process of gas generation can be depicted by a following equation reaction:

пСбИюОб + n H2O = ЗПСН4 + 3n CO2 (3)

Important factor to consider in monitoring bioconversion are damp. Temperature, pH and composition of a fraction

To prevent biomass adhesion to the walls of a reactor a coating of triazin based stratum dimensional polymer is applied

To maintain steady and stable conditions for producing CH4 it is necessary to provide the following Conditions:

• Applicable mechanical — and physicochemical performances of raw (viscosity, electrical conductivity, temperature);

• Indispensable time of fermenting of a biomass in a reactor depending on composition of a biomass;

In a considered system a driving force of transmembrane carrying is the differential of chemical potentials in subsystems with allowance for of external fields referred to simple thickness of a membrane:

Y = -Dm / L. (4)

Where — Dm — differentials of chemical potentials in subsystems with allowance for of external fields, L-simple thickness of a membrane…

The chemical potential at laying an electrical field depends on stress P, mean concentration C of a biomass, his temperature T and potential difference A^, that is

Ap= f(P, C, T, ) (5)

Generalized thermodynamic forces represent the sum of forces:

Y=Yp + Yd +Yq+Ye (6)

Where Yp = f (A P) — calls a volumetric current (stream) of a pool faction through porous

membranes, YD =f ((A C) — diffusive current (stream), Yq =f (A T) heat flow, Ye = f (A^) — current of charged particles in a system.

For isotropic homogeneous environment the diffusion coefficient can be introduced by the way:

D = g f v0 exp (-DE/kT) (7)

Where g — number of paths, on which one the transferring from one state in other, f — a fraction of successful jumps (correlation factor), v0- frequency of jumps, DE — energy of transferring from one state in other, to — Boltzmann constant, 6 — temperature.

Transport rate of fragments biomass is possible which one on the sizes are much more than a diffusive stratum, is :

V

Described by an equation: where f — potential of boundary of slip, which one separates a stratum of a dispersed phase from bulk of a biomass, є dielectric constant of environment, є 0 — permittivity of vacuum, 8- an electric field strength the Mean value of an electric field strength for organic wastes was selected, by analogy with limy clay, and is equal (2)

E=J/x (9)

Where J — a current density x — electrical conductivity of organic wastes (biomass).

The resistance of interelectrode room, filled organic wastes is instituted by expression:

R = In (Ro/ro) / 2 L (10)

Where L — altitude of a concentric net-shaped welding rod, R0 and r0 — radiuses of adjacent concentric net-shaped welding rods. (Fig. 1)

For supply of an electric osmosis the indispensable electric energy acts(arrives) from solar photo transducers (5), and the thermal energy indispensable for keeping up of temperature in a bioreactor is ensured through a solar header of water heater (3), the heat carrier which one flows past on the pipe line (2), executed by the way of worm pipe and encompassing bioreactor from its outer side.

For cloudy days and in a winter period the solar water heater is in a condition of idle time. For keeping up the temperature of a bioreactor the padding heater will be utilized, in which one as combustible the biogas, receivable in a system will be utilized. Bioenergetics plant installations are usable both in southern and in northern locales. It opens up an outlook of usage of easily accessible and iterated sources and promotes a heightening of a social level of the population and ecological indexes of the environment.

Young people, not only because of its energetic, but also because of its ecological advantages, should mostly use solar energy. Wisdom of utilization of solar energy should be acquired at schools, both from stories and books and by personal experiences. Plants for demonstration of operation of PV systems for supply of small consumers (bulbs, public — address systems and computers) would be natural way of adoption of simple rules.

If every hundredth out of the existing 4.104 elementary, 512 secondary and 135 advanced schools and faculties in SCG would install one educational-demonstration mini 300 W PV system, installed power rating of 14 kW would be obtained.

Beside the schools, sports centers are the places where healthy youth gathers. Should on every tenth object of existing 2,141 outdoor and 1,853 indoor sports objects (out of which 582 are sport halls and 85 indoor swimming pools) similar demonstration PV systems for lighting or some other useful purpose be installed, electric power of about 120 kW would be obtained.

Assuming actually attainable variant, the following dynamics of installation of educational-demonstration PV systems in schools and sport centers is anticipated (Table 8.).

Next European basketball Championship will be organizing in Serbia and Montenegro (Novi Sad, Vrsac, Beograd and Podgorica). It would be a real chance for accelerating of solar cells utilisation, similar as Sidney Olimpics in Australia (2000) [11]. This mean instaling relatively larger dimension of PV systems. Further, some of that PV systems will be Grid-connected, why not. In that case, one should be carefull for component cost optimizing [12]!

In spite of the large potential for solar collective systems within the German housing industry, up to now less than 2% (60 — 70.000 m2) of the total installed collector area in Germany are installed in large scale applications. In the view of housing companies the main barrier for implementation of solar collective systems is the difficult economic situation — with high investment costs for the installation and additional constraints caused by rent legislation (investor/user — dilemma).

German legislation allows to hand on the costs for solar thermal systems to the tenants. Nevertheless, considering the low economic efficiency of solar thermal systems, total costs are increasing which makes the dwellings less attractive for tenants.

Furthermore early installations of the last 25 years with wrong dimensioning and different malfunctions due to a lack of experience led to mistrust regarding quality and durability. Linked to this companies fear additional necessary work especially while often facing outsourcing tendencies of technical know-how within the housing industry nowadays. And while working closely together with preffered HVAC planning companies it is crucial that these planners are willing to integrate solar collective systems within a construction or refurbishment process.

While the US Federal government has created the most clearly delineated policy for PV performance contracts, a number of state, local, and private facilities have completed performance contracts incorporating PV as well. To better examine this trend, we now turn to the results of the PV performance contracting stakeholder survey conducted in support of this paper.

The survey gathered data for 18 performance contracts that incorporated grid-connected PV systems between 2000 and 2003. In the context of the larger energy services market, 18 projects may seem like an insignificant figure. When viewed in the context of the PV market, however, the trend is more compelling. As can be seen in Figure 1, the megawatts of PV installed in performance contracts expanded steadily over the period 2000-2003 and has represented an increasingly significant percentage of annual US grid-connected installations. In 2000, for example, only 6.75 kW of PV capacity were installed through performance contracting. This figure represented less than 1% of the PV installed that year. In 2003, 3.36 MW of PV, or 10.5% of the year’s total grid-connected capacity, was installed through performance contracts.

Figure 1: Grid-connected PV Installed through Performance Contracts as a Share of Annual PV Installations

In August 1999, after the Brasil Solar PV-powered music concert, the 4.7kWp stand-alone PV system was finally permanently installed on Ratones Island, a 150,000m2 island which hosts a Portuguese fortress constructed in the 1800’s and maintained by the University as a historic and research site. The PV system was added to an existing Diesel generator set, and the 28.8kWh (@48V) battery bank provides 2-days of storage. More than 1000 litres/month of Diesel were necessary to run the old gen set from 6PM to 10PM daily before the PV system was added, and power availability was limited to the gen set operating hours. Furthermore, gen set noise and emissions were a constant nuisance during operation times. During summer time, thousands of visitors come to the island, which is one of the tourist attractions of Florianopolis, and get acquainted with this PV installation, which is shown in Figure 7.

The efficiency of the ozone generation described by active power of the discharge element depends linearly on voltage and frequency.

The dependence on active power takes the following form:

f — frequency,

Cd — capacity of dielectric barrier,

Uz — ignition voltage,

Um — amplitude of the supply voltage,

Csz — capacity of the discharge chamber,

Cw — resultant capacity of discharge element.

Higher efficiency reached by increased voltage is limited by break-down strength of the dielectric and therefore the voltage does not usually exceed 50 V. The efficiency of the ozonizer can be improved by the increase of the frequency of the supply voltage. Higher frequency enables to gain required efficiency at lower voltage and thus raise the quality of the discharge elements. The influence of voltage and frequency on the ozonizer is presented in Fig. 1 and Fig. 2 [3]. The relation (1) and Fig. 1 and 2 show that active power is proportional to the frequency; the frequency influences the voltage of the discharge ignition Uz whereas the efficiency of the ozonizer changes less than proportionally.

Degradation of peak power can be caused by an increase of the internal series resistance. For the determination of the internal series resistance out of one dark IV-curve several methods are known, e. g. [7]. The dark IV-curve can be easily measured for single cells or singele modules. As for the measurement of the dark IV-curve an external DC-current source is necessary, such strong external DC-current sources for large PV-generators (several kW) are very expensive and so hardly available.

For the measurement of the internal series resistance two IV-curves of different irradiance but of the same spectrum and at the same temperature are necessary according to IEC 60891 [6]. As the actual spectrum during the measurement is not relevant for the calculation of Rs, the measurement of the first characteristic can also take place under open air conditions with natural sunlight.

The second charcteristic can be obtained by the following simulation, so a second measurement is unnecessary.

Characteristic 1: Measurement

Isci Voci [17]p maxi Vp maxi (12)

Characteristic 2: Simulation

I ■V

FF Pmaxi pmaxi

f _ i ——— > no change in Voltage (14)

FF is the same for both characteristcs, so:

(15)

I _ f ■ I

p max2 i p maxi

V _ V

p max2 p maxi

The determination of the series resistance Rs of only one measured IV-characteristic now is possible.

The following example shows the accuracy of this method.

In order to demonstrate the effect of a higher Rs, the Rs of a BP585F-module first was measured without any manipulation and then a second measurement with an additional external resistor Rext=0.9 O was made.

Measurement A without manipulation:

(16)

Measurement B with manipulation +Rext=0.9O

IscB = 5 A VocB = 223V 1

} RB = 1.3O

Ip max B = 4.51 AVp max в = 14.56 V J SB

The manipulation can be detected here.

[1]

In drawing up an overview of existing energy regulations for new housing and identifying their distinguishing characteristics, a framework for categorising energy regulations was used that was introduced in (Beerepoot, M., 2002a) presenting four categories of energy regulations currently existing in European member states. The framework and the ideas behind these four categories are presented in figure 1.

Figure 2 presents the overview of energy regulations for new housing in five EU member states, based on the analysis in (Beerepoot, M., et al., 2002b). This overview shows that all types of energy regulations, varying from insulation requirements for separate building components to the energy performance calculation, were still in use on the moment of this part of the Build-On-RES research (2003).

As can be seen in figure 2, from the five member states that have been considered in this study, the "energy use calculation” exists in three member states as a method for complying with energy regulations: France, the Netherlands and England and Wales. The energy use calculation is also called the "energy performance calculation” and is the method that is foreseen by the EPBD to be introduced in all EU member states by 2006. In France, this method was introduced in 2001 as the only option for compliance. The energy use calculation is the only method for compliance with energy regulations in the Netherlands since 1996. In England and Wales, the energy use calculation, SAP, has been one of three alternative means of compliance since 1992. Until April 2002, an energy use calculation was obligatory in all cases, no specific requirement was imposed however. From April 2002, a SAP calculation is no longer mandatory in all cases, but must be used for the Carbon Index method.

Figure 2 Energy regulations for new housing in five EU member states (according to framework in (Beerepoot, M., 2002a))

Figure 3 summarizes the analysis of the extent to which RES techniques[20] are being rewarded in energy regulations for new housing in five member states. The overview shows that utilizing passive solar energy is (to some extent) rewarded in energy regulations in six of nine situations in five member states. Solar thermal systems are included in energy performance regulations in The Netherlands, and in the SAP calculation in England and Wales (although for hot water production only). The comprehensiveness of solar thermal systems is very different for each of the energy performance calculations used. For example, in The Dutch Energy Performance Method, the surface, orientation and tilt of collectors are considered in the calculation, in the English Standard Assessment Procedure calculation only considers the surface of the solar panel. Solar space heating systems are integrated in energy performance calculations in The Netherlands. The acknowledgement of photovoltaic (PV) energy systems is currently only included in the Dutch energy performance calculation. When applying photovoltaic panels, the electricity produced by photovoltaic (PV) energy systems is subtracted from the electricity use calculated for lighting, fans and auxiliary energy for the heating and hot water system. Geothermal heat pumps are considered in at least four of five member states (in France, The Netherlands, England & Wales and future regulations of Flanders). Techniques like wind power, hydropower or biomass on a small scale such as the building level are not considered in any of the energy performance regulations.

Figure 3 Overview of renewable energy rewarded in energy regulations in five member states (situation 2002 updated until 2003)

As can be seen in figure 4, the five considered Member States have few or no energy regulations for existing residential buildings (Cruchten, G. van, et al, 2003). Only some first steps have been taken in the field of energy requirements for the existing building stock, like recent initiatives in England and Wales and Germany. In the specific situation of major renovation the Belgium, Danish and the Dutch Building Code are applicable for existing dwellings. None of the five Member States have regulations that require the application of RES in existing buildings.

Figure 4 Energy regulations for existing housing in six EU member states (according to framework in (Beerepoot, M., 2002a))

Regarding financial instruments, renewable energy is mostly addressed by means of subsidy schemes. Three out of five member states have introduced a subsidy scheme for solar thermal systems: the Netherlands, Belgium and France. All the five member states have introduced a subsidy scheme for photovoltaic systems, in some member states this is a very recent development. Two of five member states, Belgium and the Netherlands, have introduced a subsidy scheme for heat pumps.

Regarding information policies, renewable energy is often not a main focus of communication activities. Publicity campaigns often cover the subject of energy savings in general. Sometimes brochures focusing on renewable energy have been developed.

Marsh has developed a highly efficient, uniform policy for controlling the main risks of photovoltaic systems. It is an over-all policy for photovoltaic systems and it is comprehensive because several insurances are included. An insurance program from one source reduces the administration cost and makes it less expensive.

The package covers the operation phase after acceptance. If wished, the erection and construction phase as well as the trial run can be included.

The insurance modules consist of property insurance (nearly all risk) and loss due to business interruption. It is possible to include third party liability insurance, too.

For big solar system it may be possible to insure decrease of receipts due to lessened solar radiation.

Property Insurance

According to general insurance conditions, a property loss will be indemnified if the loss affects insured property and insured interest at an insured location during the period insured by an unforeseen event (while not being excluded by a specific named peril).

These points are all to be fulfilled. To simplify the description this sentence is transferred in electrical engineering as shown in figure 4.

In an electric circuit the damage represents the generator, the light as power consumption is the indemnification. The conditions are represented by the switches which must all be closed for an electric current (meaning the conditions have to be fulfilled, i. e. conditions on insured items, insured location and more).

Insured items are all components of the photovoltaic installation required for the operations and for maintaining the operations. This includes the transformer and — if it is a bigger installation with many cells — the mains or grid in the area up to the point where the electric current is delivered to the national grid.

Insured locations are all premises used by the Insured regardless of who is their owner. At first, these are the locations where the photovoltaic systems are installed; even if the locations are rented. The items are insured if they are in repair shops for revision works and during the transport to the repair shop they are insured too. This might be regarded as a matter of course but it is not usual practice. In may policies it is stated that coverage exists only at the area where the photovoltaic system is installed.

There is insurance cover during the running time of the contract but — it is self-evident — the premium must be paid.

Insured is the interest of the owner or operator. They are the only who may receive indemnification. The interest of a supplier or a repair shop is not insured. This means, they cannot claim for a loss. A damage which does not result in a loss for the insured will not be indemnified. In a warranty case you have to claim against the supplier. The insurer stands in, if the supplier refuses warranty or if the supplier does not further exist. But the insurer will seek for recovery because only the owner/operator is secured.